1 00:00:12,950 --> 00:00:10,430 [Music] 2 00:00:16,310 --> 00:00:12,960 I'll see what I can do to help wrap this 3 00:00:18,050 --> 00:00:16,320 up in a way that is stimulating and yet 4 00:00:20,810 --> 00:00:18,060 a little bit puzzling so I just want to 5 00:00:24,410 --> 00:00:20,820 explain to you that when I was about 10 6 00:00:26,150 --> 00:00:24,420 years old we went on a class trip I was 7 00:00:28,040 --> 00:00:26,160 growing up in New York City we went on a 8 00:00:29,900 --> 00:00:28,050 class trip to the planetarium the Hayden 9 00:00:34,940 --> 00:00:29,910 Planetarium in Museum of Natural History 10 00:00:36,380 --> 00:00:34,950 and I was the first time I was ever in 11 00:00:38,530 --> 00:00:36,390 the planetarium the planetarium was an 12 00:00:42,260 --> 00:00:38,540 incredibly interesting place for me and 13 00:00:45,170 --> 00:00:42,270 the speaker I don't know who it was 14 00:00:47,420 --> 00:00:45,180 wasn't Neil deGrasse Tyson but it was a 15 00:00:50,000 --> 00:00:47,430 very interesting person and he explained 16 00:00:52,250 --> 00:00:50,010 that we have oxygen on earth and to our 17 00:00:54,400 --> 00:00:52,260 knowledge this was the only body in the 18 00:00:57,950 --> 00:00:54,410 solar system that had molecular oxygen 19 00:00:59,390 --> 00:00:57,960 in the atmosphere and I came home and I 20 00:01:01,250 --> 00:00:59,400 thought about this and I explained to my 21 00:01:03,470 --> 00:01:01,260 mother that this is the case and I could 22 00:01:07,190 --> 00:01:03,480 light a match and light a candle here 23 00:01:11,330 --> 00:01:07,200 and I can't do that on Mars and then I 24 00:01:16,160 --> 00:01:11,340 thought naively that some adult is 25 00:01:17,989 --> 00:01:16,170 hiding from me how we make oxygen so I 26 00:01:20,209 --> 00:01:17,999 didn't know how we make oxygen I knew 27 00:01:23,359 --> 00:01:20,219 plants made oxygen so I thought somebody 28 00:01:25,520 --> 00:01:23,369 knows how oxygen is made in a plant it 29 00:01:27,919 --> 00:01:25,530 just that just was a secret that they 30 00:01:31,190 --> 00:01:27,929 were going to keep from me and I thought 31 00:01:34,099 --> 00:01:31,200 maybe when I was 15 this this the secret 32 00:01:37,999 --> 00:01:34,109 would be revealed and then I was 20 and 33 00:01:41,270 --> 00:01:38,009 I thought the secret revealed and then I 34 00:01:45,949 --> 00:01:41,280 realize we don't know the answer to this 35 00:01:47,230 --> 00:01:45,959 day now if you think about that that's 36 00:01:50,599 --> 00:01:47,240 pretty profound 37 00:01:51,859 --> 00:01:50,609 so Shen is working at Okayama University 38 00:01:53,569 --> 00:01:51,869 there are others that are working around 39 00:01:56,929 --> 00:01:53,579 the world trying to understand the 40 00:02:03,050 --> 00:01:56,939 natural process by which organisms have 41 00:02:06,739 --> 00:02:03,060 evolved to split water we don't know how 42 00:02:08,240 --> 00:02:06,749 nitrogen is fixed we don't know so I'm 43 00:02:11,390 --> 00:02:08,250 just saying this to the younger people 44 00:02:14,300 --> 00:02:11,400 in the audience that the fundamental 45 00:02:16,640 --> 00:02:14,310 processes of the catalysis of reactions 46 00:02:21,440 --> 00:02:16,650 that are so critical with a function of 47 00:02:23,450 --> 00:02:21,450 the earth are largely unknown let alone 48 00:02:24,360 --> 00:02:23,460 their evolutionary history so just how 49 00:02:27,059 --> 00:02:24,370 they work 50 00:02:28,850 --> 00:02:27,069 today isn't very one so I want to talk 51 00:02:31,949 --> 00:02:28,860 today a little bit about the origin and 52 00:02:35,190 --> 00:02:31,959 the emergence of coupled biogeochemical 53 00:02:37,440 --> 00:02:35,200 cycles and this is the bridge part that 54 00:02:39,119 --> 00:02:37,450 I look at the origin is on the other 55 00:02:42,750 --> 00:02:39,129 side of the bridge in that that little 56 00:02:45,360 --> 00:02:42,760 island Manhattan obviously and we are 57 00:02:47,430 --> 00:02:45,370 moving out into the rest of the world so 58 00:02:49,440 --> 00:02:47,440 this bridge goes to the rest of the 59 00:02:52,140 --> 00:02:49,450 world this this connects the origin to 60 00:02:53,880 --> 00:02:52,150 the rest of the world and really what I 61 00:02:56,280 --> 00:02:53,890 focus on here let me just go back for 62 00:02:59,789 --> 00:02:56,290 one second before I get there is the 63 00:03:01,470 --> 00:02:59,799 scaffolding right so we can build the 64 00:03:05,150 --> 00:03:01,480 lanes and someone we can ferry things 65 00:03:08,250 --> 00:03:05,160 across but really it's the strings 66 00:03:10,650 --> 00:03:08,260 across the bridge that keep it going and 67 00:03:13,979 --> 00:03:10,660 allow it to say stay suspended and 68 00:03:16,559 --> 00:03:13,989 stable and that's an analogy that I 69 00:03:18,839 --> 00:03:16,569 think is a pretty interesting one let's 70 00:03:20,369 --> 00:03:18,849 start at the beginning so I really like 71 00:03:22,410 --> 00:03:20,379 this plot this is of course the 72 00:03:26,759 --> 00:03:22,420 classical Goldschmidt plot the victor 73 00:03:28,039 --> 00:03:26,769 Goldschmidt was a genius actually uh was 74 00:03:32,009 --> 00:03:28,049 born in Zurich 75 00:03:34,140 --> 00:03:32,019 his parents were Jewish his father was a 76 00:03:41,240 --> 00:03:34,150 chemistry professor and was given a 77 00:03:45,089 --> 00:03:41,250 position in Oslo at around 1895 in 1898 78 00:03:47,520 --> 00:03:45,099 and Viktor who was born in 1888 moved to 79 00:03:50,129 --> 00:03:47,530 Oslo and he actually never really wanted 80 00:03:51,750 --> 00:03:50,139 to ever leave Norway again he was 81 00:03:54,599 --> 00:03:51,760 arrested by the Gestapo during the 82 00:03:59,069 --> 00:03:54,609 Second World War and actually freed by 83 00:04:02,430 --> 00:03:59,079 mi5 and another group of Brits he was 84 00:04:05,250 --> 00:04:02,440 arrested twice and he was taken to 85 00:04:08,940 --> 00:04:05,260 England for safety during the war and 86 00:04:10,800 --> 00:04:08,950 after the war in 1947 I guess he 87 00:04:14,009 --> 00:04:10,810 returned back to us well he didn't wanna 88 00:04:14,909 --> 00:04:14,019 stay meaning but he spent his life as a 89 00:04:18,210 --> 00:04:14,919 mineralogist 90 00:04:20,339 --> 00:04:18,220 and and and tried to understand probably 91 00:04:21,599 --> 00:04:20,349 one of the most profound things which he 92 00:04:23,760 --> 00:04:21,609 didn't understand of course in the 93 00:04:25,770 --> 00:04:23,770 beginning what the distribution of 94 00:04:28,950 --> 00:04:25,780 elements are in in our neck of the 95 00:04:32,610 --> 00:04:28,960 universe and of course we didn't know 96 00:04:33,810 --> 00:04:32,620 about cosmochemistry and we still don't 97 00:04:36,080 --> 00:04:33,820 know a lot of the issues about 98 00:04:40,370 --> 00:04:36,090 cosmochemistry but 99 00:04:42,720 --> 00:04:40,380 this graph were distribution of elements 100 00:04:47,880 --> 00:04:42,730 is an interesting one for several 101 00:04:51,930 --> 00:04:47,890 reasons first of all sorry first of all 102 00:04:56,070 --> 00:04:51,940 there is the primordial BIGBANG element 103 00:04:59,190 --> 00:04:56,080 or elements hydrogen helium and these 104 00:05:01,320 --> 00:04:59,200 two last elements out here uranium and 105 00:05:03,990 --> 00:05:01,330 thorium which with potassium-40 106 00:05:06,420 --> 00:05:04,000 formed the radiogenic core of our planet 107 00:05:09,480 --> 00:05:06,430 and all the rocky planets that we know 108 00:05:11,970 --> 00:05:09,490 of in our solar system but the issue is 109 00:05:14,550 --> 00:05:11,980 here if you think about the energy 110 00:05:19,940 --> 00:05:14,560 sources for life or the energy sources 111 00:05:21,680 --> 00:05:19,950 in aw in the universe we know of two 112 00:05:24,780 --> 00:05:21,690 sorry 113 00:05:26,430 --> 00:05:24,790 one is the fusion reactions that are 114 00:05:31,020 --> 00:05:26,440 coming from these very light isotopes 115 00:05:35,370 --> 00:05:31,030 where hydrogen primarily giving us solar 116 00:05:39,210 --> 00:05:35,380 energy and the other is radioactive 117 00:05:43,080 --> 00:05:39,220 decay within the rocky planet which is 118 00:05:44,790 --> 00:05:43,090 giving us heat so it's interesting that 119 00:05:47,730 --> 00:05:44,800 the extremes of this elemental 120 00:05:50,090 --> 00:05:47,740 distribution are the sources of energy 121 00:05:52,350 --> 00:05:50,100 everything else in the middle is 122 00:05:57,050 --> 00:05:52,360 something that is used as a building 123 00:06:01,409 --> 00:05:57,060 block either for rocks or for lucky 124 00:06:06,330 --> 00:06:01,419 now the second interesting issue here is 125 00:06:07,409 --> 00:06:06,340 obviously the the RS distribution of 126 00:06:09,060 --> 00:06:07,419 elements I'm not going to go through 127 00:06:11,969 --> 00:06:09,070 this in a cosmochemistry world but we 128 00:06:18,030 --> 00:06:11,979 wind up with a very very stable metal 129 00:06:20,370 --> 00:06:18,040 and that's on so iron becomes the most 130 00:06:26,010 --> 00:06:20,380 abundant transition element that we find 131 00:06:29,880 --> 00:06:26,020 cosmically and that's that accident if 132 00:06:32,670 --> 00:06:29,890 you will of nature has led to a lot of 133 00:06:35,460 --> 00:06:32,680 chemistry that is based on in life on 134 00:06:37,770 --> 00:06:35,470 this element now the elements that of 135 00:06:40,430 --> 00:06:37,780 course make up life in the polymer world 136 00:06:45,300 --> 00:06:40,440 is hydrogen carbon nitrogen oxygen 137 00:06:48,270 --> 00:06:45,310 sulfur and phosphorus and so those big 138 00:06:51,680 --> 00:06:48,280 six the schnapps as they're called 139 00:07:00,240 --> 00:06:57,029 those big six elements form all the 140 00:07:02,999 --> 00:07:00,250 polymers of life that we know the lipids 141 00:07:08,400 --> 00:07:03,009 the proteins and nucleic acids the 142 00:07:12,450 --> 00:07:08,410 carbohydrates now within the big six one 143 00:07:13,469 --> 00:07:12,460 is unique and that's phosphorus so 144 00:07:15,870 --> 00:07:13,479 phosphorus 145 00:07:18,089 --> 00:07:15,880 although the fugacity is very very very 146 00:07:22,620 --> 00:07:18,099 low for which you can do reduce the 147 00:07:24,570 --> 00:07:22,630 phosphorus and it can be done for the 148 00:07:29,180 --> 00:07:24,580 most part phosphorus is an oxidized 149 00:07:34,800 --> 00:07:29,190 species as phosphate in nature in rocks 150 00:07:36,689 --> 00:07:34,810 and it doesn't undergo oxidation 151 00:07:41,990 --> 00:07:36,699 reduction reactions for any to any great 152 00:07:45,990 --> 00:07:42,000 extent the other five are in a dance a 153 00:07:47,300 --> 00:07:46,000 great dance of transferring electrons to 154 00:07:50,850 --> 00:07:47,310 and from each other 155 00:07:55,770 --> 00:07:50,860 driven by either thermal energy or solar 156 00:08:02,640 --> 00:07:55,780 energy and that dance has created a 157 00:08:04,589 --> 00:08:02,650 global metabolic pathway which is very 158 00:08:08,670 --> 00:08:04,599 similar to what you will see in a cake 159 00:08:11,100 --> 00:08:08,680 plot for a cell so the entire planet is 160 00:08:11,939 --> 00:08:11,110 basically a big cell and I'll describe 161 00:08:16,020 --> 00:08:11,949 that in a bit 162 00:08:19,620 --> 00:08:16,030 so let's first of all take away one life 163 00:08:21,270 --> 00:08:19,630 is electric this is not a metaphor this 164 00:08:23,640 --> 00:08:21,280 is not a metaphor it's not I'm not 165 00:08:24,600 --> 00:08:23,650 saying electric as a metaphor it is 166 00:08:29,129 --> 00:08:24,610 electric 167 00:08:31,260 --> 00:08:29,139 we're moving electrons around okay so 168 00:08:32,490 --> 00:08:31,270 all organisms are deriving energy for 169 00:08:34,199 --> 00:08:32,500 growth and maintenance by moving 170 00:08:36,120 --> 00:08:34,209 electrons from a substrate to a product 171 00:08:39,209 --> 00:08:36,130 we've witnessed this throughout the 172 00:08:41,310 --> 00:08:39,219 entire last two days and today so it 173 00:08:45,269 --> 00:08:41,320 obviously follows that substrates and 174 00:08:47,819 --> 00:08:45,279 products must be cycled which means 175 00:08:50,310 --> 00:08:47,829 biological processes are paired they're 176 00:08:52,730 --> 00:08:50,320 half cells you're a half cell I'm a half 177 00:09:00,360 --> 00:08:57,720 okay so and we can talk about the 178 00:09:03,060 --> 00:09:00,370 triviality of it and we've seen this in 179 00:09:06,270 --> 00:09:03,070 in several slides of the photos 180 00:09:07,980 --> 00:09:06,280 this is respiration process and we can 181 00:09:09,750 --> 00:09:07,990 talk about photosynthesis in a number of 182 00:09:13,740 --> 00:09:09,760 ways so photosynthesis can drive 183 00:09:16,410 --> 00:09:13,750 electrons off of some molecule in the 184 00:09:17,790 --> 00:09:16,420 case of the most of us sitting here 185 00:09:19,530 --> 00:09:17,800 today we're most familiar with the 186 00:09:23,970 --> 00:09:19,540 photosynthesis driving electrons over 187 00:09:25,800 --> 00:09:23,980 water to produce molecular oxygen and 188 00:09:27,660 --> 00:09:25,810 they drive electrons off and produce 189 00:09:30,720 --> 00:09:27,670 protons they don't drive that electrons 190 00:09:31,340 --> 00:09:30,730 often produce hydrogen you can discuss 191 00:09:35,460 --> 00:09:31,350 that later 192 00:09:37,950 --> 00:09:35,470 but in the early earth and we can see 193 00:09:40,500 --> 00:09:37,960 this in extant metabolism of purple 194 00:09:43,110 --> 00:09:40,510 bacteria for example we can drive 195 00:09:47,520 --> 00:09:43,120 electrons with very simple amounts of 196 00:09:52,820 --> 00:09:47,530 energy off of hydrogen gas or ion - or 197 00:09:55,640 --> 00:09:52,830 h2s or even carbohydrate so those were 198 00:09:58,740 --> 00:09:55,650 electron sources in the Archaean and 199 00:10:03,930 --> 00:09:58,750 today of course the electron source is 200 00:10:05,210 --> 00:10:03,940 liquid water and liquid water has a 201 00:10:09,330 --> 00:10:05,220 great advantage over the other 202 00:10:12,390 --> 00:10:09,340 substrates as liquid water is readily 203 00:10:16,920 --> 00:10:12,400 vastly available so you don't have to 204 00:10:19,050 --> 00:10:16,930 carry your volcano with you you don't 205 00:10:21,810 --> 00:10:19,060 have to worry about substrate limitation 206 00:10:23,520 --> 00:10:21,820 ever because it's always going to be 207 00:10:25,890 --> 00:10:23,530 available on the surface of the planet 208 00:10:28,860 --> 00:10:25,900 as long as it's just right 209 00:10:30,900 --> 00:10:28,870 we don't boil the water off like we do 210 00:10:34,590 --> 00:10:30,910 in a neighboring planet and we don't 211 00:10:36,690 --> 00:10:34,600 freeze it down so as long as there's 212 00:10:40,140 --> 00:10:36,700 liquid water we have a source of 213 00:10:42,990 --> 00:10:40,150 electrons and then we come to this which 214 00:10:45,390 --> 00:10:43,000 will hair or I believe referred to 215 00:10:46,290 --> 00:10:45,400 earlier and that is this disequilibrium 216 00:10:49,380 --> 00:10:46,300 between 217 00:10:51,060 --> 00:10:49,390 the photosynthetic rate of oxygen ik 218 00:10:53,340 --> 00:10:51,070 photosynthesis which is producing 219 00:10:56,730 --> 00:10:53,350 molecular oxygen and carbohydrate sugar 220 00:10:58,320 --> 00:10:56,740 candy this is candy and the aerobic 221 00:11:00,930 --> 00:10:58,330 respiration that takes the candy and 222 00:11:04,230 --> 00:11:00,940 consumes it back to water in carbon 223 00:11:06,840 --> 00:11:04,240 dioxide which is what we do in the room 224 00:11:09,600 --> 00:11:06,850 so when we're breathing right now two 225 00:11:13,890 --> 00:11:09,610 gases are coming out of our bodies least 226 00:11:16,230 --> 00:11:13,900 from our nose and they are water and 227 00:11:22,470 --> 00:11:16,240 carbon dioxide so the water 228 00:11:26,730 --> 00:11:22,480 is just a water water cycle right that's 229 00:11:31,139 --> 00:11:26,740 that's the planetary upper extreme now 230 00:11:33,240 --> 00:11:31,149 of of the redox couple so obviously 231 00:11:34,769 --> 00:11:33,250 these these can't be balanced on a 232 00:11:37,290 --> 00:11:34,779 planetary scale over geologic time 233 00:11:38,910 --> 00:11:37,300 otherwise we would not have had oxygen 234 00:11:40,680 --> 00:11:38,920 in the atmosphere as we're here said so 235 00:11:42,829 --> 00:11:40,690 let's explain this a little bit more 236 00:11:47,030 --> 00:11:42,839 this is the the water is viewed by 237 00:11:51,360 --> 00:11:47,040 Apollo this is an actual photograph I 238 00:11:53,400 --> 00:11:51,370 love it and here's another interesting 239 00:11:56,449 --> 00:11:53,410 problem so if I took all that water 240 00:12:00,440 --> 00:11:56,459 which is at 73% of Earth's surface 241 00:12:02,100 --> 00:12:00,450 roughly and I roll it up into a ball 242 00:12:05,370 --> 00:12:02,110 that's all it is 243 00:12:10,440 --> 00:12:05,380 it's nothing it's nothing it said being 244 00:12:15,690 --> 00:12:10,450 thin thin thin veneer thin and yet it's 245 00:12:17,269 --> 00:12:15,700 been on the planet for at least 4.4 246 00:12:21,990 --> 00:12:17,279 billion years 247 00:12:24,590 --> 00:12:22,000 it's amazing it's amazing now here's 248 00:12:28,980 --> 00:12:24,600 another thing we don't really understand 249 00:12:32,880 --> 00:12:28,990 where the water came from we don't know 250 00:12:36,389 --> 00:12:32,890 exactly where the water came from it's 251 00:12:38,040 --> 00:12:36,399 probably not cometary water ro-bear in 252 00:12:40,019 --> 00:12:38,050 Paris would tell you that it's probably 253 00:12:43,440 --> 00:12:40,029 meteoritic at least baked based on the D 254 00:12:44,970 --> 00:12:43,450 H Hydra ratios and then Drake would say 255 00:12:47,510 --> 00:12:44,980 of course is the thin wet veneer that 256 00:12:51,449 --> 00:12:47,520 this is just water that has come out as 257 00:12:52,980 --> 00:12:51,459 as The Rock started to cool it begs the 258 00:12:55,560 --> 00:12:52,990 question well how did the rocks get the 259 00:12:57,860 --> 00:12:55,570 water so it's just kind of a panspermia 260 00:13:02,819 --> 00:12:57,870 problem where did the water come from 261 00:13:06,660 --> 00:13:02,829 all right now it takes a lot of energy 262 00:13:17,400 --> 00:13:06,670 to split water at shg it's about 1.2 263 00:13:19,440 --> 00:13:17,410 electron volts at pH 7 it's 0.8 - all 264 00:13:28,180 --> 00:13:19,450 right 265 00:13:32,260 --> 00:13:28,190 now vernadsky Vladimir vernadsky was 266 00:13:39,250 --> 00:13:32,270 another character he was Ukrainian born 267 00:13:41,740 --> 00:13:39,260 in Kiev who was let Goldschmidt he was 268 00:13:43,420 --> 00:13:41,750 an extraordinarily intelligent person 269 00:13:51,639 --> 00:13:43,430 very I mean Goldschmidt I think got his 270 00:13:56,100 --> 00:13:51,649 PhD at 22 or 21 PhD vernadsky went to 271 00:13:59,850 --> 00:13:56,110 Moscow with his family early in his life 272 00:14:03,449 --> 00:13:59,860 lived most of his life in Moscow and 273 00:14:08,470 --> 00:14:03,459 created a field which we call 274 00:14:11,800 --> 00:14:08,480 biogeochemistry he created it he wrote a 275 00:14:17,110 --> 00:14:11,810 book in 1928 which was never translated 276 00:14:21,220 --> 00:14:17,120 into English until 1998 his son George 277 00:14:24,639 --> 00:14:21,230 was a professor of history and Russian 278 00:14:27,310 --> 00:14:24,649 studies at Yale University he made an 279 00:14:29,800 --> 00:14:27,320 asylum leap in France and came to the 280 00:14:31,900 --> 00:14:29,810 United States his father remained 281 00:14:34,300 --> 00:14:31,910 forever in the Soviet Union and was the 282 00:14:40,030 --> 00:14:34,310 father of the atomic bomb in the Soviet 283 00:14:43,300 --> 00:14:40,040 times vernadsky had a perception of of 284 00:14:45,370 --> 00:14:43,310 things that was an intuition of things 285 00:14:47,650 --> 00:14:45,380 which for which he had no proof but was 286 00:14:51,250 --> 00:14:47,660 one of the most profound insights that 287 00:14:54,010 --> 00:14:51,260 he had was that all organisms that are 288 00:14:59,680 --> 00:14:54,020 alive exchanged gases with their 289 00:15:02,110 --> 00:14:59,690 environment that's profound so that 290 00:15:04,269 --> 00:15:02,120 means that if an organism constraint 291 00:15:06,880 --> 00:15:04,279 exchange has to exchange F it's a lot 292 00:15:08,880 --> 00:15:06,890 gases with the environment it can change 293 00:15:14,100 --> 00:15:08,890 the gas composition of a planet and 294 00:15:16,360 --> 00:15:14,110 vernadsky realized this and we use that 295 00:15:20,889 --> 00:15:16,370 subconsciously we don't State it but we 296 00:15:28,660 --> 00:15:20,899 use it subconsciously in our search for 297 00:15:33,250 --> 00:15:28,670 life on exoplanets so the gas exchange 298 00:15:37,870 --> 00:15:33,260 via redox reactions so you're 299 00:15:45,250 --> 00:15:37,880 transforming a solute or a liquid to a 300 00:15:48,070 --> 00:15:45,260 gas phase it's a state transition it's 301 00:15:48,990 --> 00:15:48,080 not just simply gases going in and gases 302 00:15:51,370 --> 00:15:49,000 coming out 303 00:15:53,130 --> 00:15:51,380 there's state transitions we're taking 304 00:16:00,520 --> 00:15:53,140 liquid water and converting it to 305 00:16:02,920 --> 00:16:00,530 protons electrons and owed to gas we're 306 00:16:05,800 --> 00:16:02,930 taking sugar and converting it to carbon 307 00:16:07,990 --> 00:16:05,810 dioxide or in the case of a 308 00:16:10,360 --> 00:16:08,000 photosynthetic organism taking a gas and 309 00:16:17,500 --> 00:16:10,370 converting it to a solute in this case 310 00:16:19,690 --> 00:16:17,510 for example sugar so the core reactions 311 00:16:26,650 --> 00:16:19,700 many of them in the metabolic processes 312 00:16:30,310 --> 00:16:26,660 are related to gas exchanges now if we 313 00:16:31,810 --> 00:16:30,320 start to look at who created metabolism 314 00:16:36,220 --> 00:16:31,820 and where it is today and I'm not going 315 00:16:38,500 --> 00:16:36,230 back to Luca I want to take a look at 316 00:16:40,150 --> 00:16:38,510 extant metabolism and its origins in 317 00:16:42,550 --> 00:16:40,160 some ways but let's let's not worry 318 00:16:45,010 --> 00:16:42,560 about Luca for the moment what we see is 319 00:16:46,960 --> 00:16:45,020 these two main clade sorry I'm going to 320 00:16:50,590 --> 00:16:46,970 go back here to main clades of 321 00:16:53,050 --> 00:16:50,600 prokaryotic organisms the bacteria and 322 00:16:55,870 --> 00:16:53,060 the Archaea which have the ability to 323 00:17:01,450 --> 00:16:55,880 exchange genes as we've heard by viruses 324 00:17:05,200 --> 00:17:01,460 or even by free DNA across in a 325 00:17:10,050 --> 00:17:05,210 horizontal transfer mechanism and so 326 00:17:12,520 --> 00:17:10,060 many metabolisms are scrambled okay and 327 00:17:19,420 --> 00:17:12,530 then we come up to this curious group of 328 00:17:23,050 --> 00:17:19,430 organisms up here eukaryotes and in as 329 00:17:26,830 --> 00:17:23,060 one eukaryote talking to others in the 330 00:17:29,280 --> 00:17:26,840 room frankly eukaryotes are terribly 331 00:17:31,830 --> 00:17:29,290 boring from a metabolic point of view 332 00:17:35,800 --> 00:17:31,840 they didn't create anything 333 00:17:39,810 --> 00:17:35,810 metabolically they're just we are just 334 00:17:43,340 --> 00:17:39,820 big versions of e.coli with less 335 00:17:50,430 --> 00:17:43,350 metabolic flexibility 336 00:17:52,350 --> 00:17:50,440 all right now I just want to take a few 337 00:17:57,200 --> 00:17:52,360 seconds of historical diversion for a 338 00:18:10,110 --> 00:18:08,000 in 1665 charles ii by edict in england 339 00:18:12,390 --> 00:18:10,120 established the Royal Society and why 340 00:18:16,020 --> 00:18:12,400 did he establish the Royal Society well 341 00:18:21,230 --> 00:18:16,030 he went to France and Louie the King 342 00:18:24,060 --> 00:18:21,240 showed him the French Academy and 343 00:18:26,940 --> 00:18:24,070 Charles went back to London and he was 344 00:18:30,080 --> 00:18:26,950 not going to be outdone by the French so 345 00:18:33,720 --> 00:18:30,090 he established the Royal Society and 346 00:18:35,250 --> 00:18:33,730 within the Royal Society there were many 347 00:18:37,110 --> 00:18:35,260 people in the Royal Society at that time 348 00:18:39,960 --> 00:18:37,120 there are not many but I mean members 349 00:18:42,899 --> 00:18:39,970 were not all or the original fellows 350 00:18:45,750 --> 00:18:42,909 were not just scientists so peeps was a 351 00:18:47,279 --> 00:18:45,760 member I believe and so on but one of 352 00:18:50,880 --> 00:18:47,289 them was an interesting character was 353 00:18:52,980 --> 00:18:50,890 Robert Hooke and Robert Hooke was a 354 00:18:55,320 --> 00:18:52,990 porush guy he didn't he didn't come from 355 00:18:59,789 --> 00:18:55,330 great wealth he didn't have a university 356 00:19:03,090 --> 00:18:59,799 position like Newton or so on but he he 357 00:19:06,510 --> 00:19:03,100 wanted to have a microscope and and and 358 00:19:10,380 --> 00:19:06,520 a guy named crock I think it was crock 359 00:19:12,539 --> 00:19:10,390 in London was commissioned to create a 360 00:19:15,149 --> 00:19:12,549 microscope for him and it was a compound 361 00:19:17,520 --> 00:19:15,159 microscope of two lenses and the 362 00:19:19,380 --> 00:19:17,530 spherical aberrations were pretty bad so 363 00:19:21,720 --> 00:19:19,390 you couldn't really get magnification 364 00:19:24,930 --> 00:19:21,730 beyond around twenty to thirty X without 365 00:19:30,990 --> 00:19:24,940 having a lot of fuzz so it didn't work 366 00:19:34,830 --> 00:19:31,000 very well but what he could see were 367 00:19:38,010 --> 00:19:34,840 eyes of fleas or wings of fleas I know a 368 00:19:41,340 --> 00:19:38,020 lot of fleas that he study fleas were 369 00:19:44,279 --> 00:19:41,350 apparently pretty abundant on and other 370 00:19:46,169 --> 00:19:44,289 organisms and he also cut a little 371 00:19:48,810 --> 00:19:46,179 little little little thin section of a 372 00:19:50,610 --> 00:19:48,820 piece of cork and he identified these 373 00:19:52,980 --> 00:19:50,620 little squares within this thin section 374 00:19:55,169 --> 00:19:52,990 which he called cells and that was the 375 00:19:55,890 --> 00:19:55,179 very first identification of what he 376 00:20:00,210 --> 00:19:55,900 called 377 00:20:02,010 --> 00:20:00,220 come down to now to be a cell and the 378 00:20:03,630 --> 00:20:02,020 reason we call that a cell is because 379 00:20:05,880 --> 00:20:03,640 Hooke called it a cell and why did he 380 00:20:09,180 --> 00:20:05,890 call it a cell because it reminded him 381 00:20:12,390 --> 00:20:09,190 of a place in which the monks lived in a 382 00:20:15,630 --> 00:20:12,400 room a cell it looked to him like a son 383 00:20:19,680 --> 00:20:15,640 Noorie now in Holland totally 384 00:20:22,820 --> 00:20:19,690 independently in Delft there was a 385 00:20:27,690 --> 00:20:22,830 fabric merchant named Lewin oak and 386 00:20:29,430 --> 00:20:27,700 Lewin Hooke was also fascinated by what 387 00:20:31,190 --> 00:20:29,440 what he couldn't see now you have to 388 00:20:34,730 --> 00:20:31,200 think about this for a minute 389 00:20:38,660 --> 00:20:34,740 Galileo had already had a telescope so 390 00:20:42,419 --> 00:20:38,670 you can see stars you know they're there 391 00:20:45,299 --> 00:20:42,429 and you just wanted to get them to be 392 00:20:48,930 --> 00:20:45,309 closer to you so you could build optics 393 00:20:51,410 --> 00:20:48,940 that could make things big from 394 00:20:54,120 --> 00:20:51,420 something you already knew existed 395 00:20:55,620 --> 00:20:54,130 now it turned out that Galileo if you 396 00:20:58,919 --> 00:20:55,630 inverted the telescope you had a 397 00:21:01,770 --> 00:20:58,929 microscope and one of his microscope 398 00:21:03,570 --> 00:21:01,780 makers actually made him my telescope 399 00:21:10,530 --> 00:21:03,580 makers made him a microscope which sat 400 00:21:14,610 --> 00:21:10,540 on his desk he was convicted and sent to 401 00:21:18,360 --> 00:21:14,620 house arrest in the Inquisition close to 402 00:21:20,549 --> 00:21:18,370 his daughter Galileo and he never wrote 403 00:21:23,340 --> 00:21:20,559 anything that I know of about any 404 00:21:27,049 --> 00:21:23,350 microscopic observations but we knew how 405 00:21:34,770 --> 00:21:31,230 Lewin Hooke was quite wealthy successful 406 00:21:37,500 --> 00:21:34,780 businessmen and he bought the finest 407 00:21:41,280 --> 00:21:37,510 Venetian glass that he could find and he 408 00:21:43,340 --> 00:21:41,290 pulled it into a little strings and then 409 00:21:47,540 --> 00:21:43,350 he would melt the string into a sphere 410 00:21:51,690 --> 00:21:47,550 and he polished these little spheres 411 00:21:54,000 --> 00:21:51,700 little spheres being two millimeters 2.5 412 00:21:56,280 --> 00:21:54,010 millimeters he couldn't control them 413 00:21:58,740 --> 00:21:56,290 very well but he would polish them and 414 00:22:01,380 --> 00:21:58,750 he never ever gave away the secret even 415 00:22:05,760 --> 00:22:01,390 up until his death of how he polished 416 00:22:08,520 --> 00:22:05,770 these spheres so nobody knew exactly how 417 00:22:09,510 --> 00:22:08,530 he made these lenses and he would put 418 00:22:14,430 --> 00:22:09,520 these lenses 419 00:22:16,500 --> 00:22:14,440 in a very very simple - slab piece of 420 00:22:20,610 --> 00:22:16,510 metal usually made out of copper or 421 00:22:22,919 --> 00:22:20,620 silver and there's the lens and he put a 422 00:22:26,970 --> 00:22:22,929 sample behind it and he would peer 423 00:22:28,799 --> 00:22:26,980 through it usually to a to a candle but 424 00:22:33,990 --> 00:22:28,809 you could also put it up to a diffuse 425 00:22:39,110 --> 00:22:34,000 lie in the in the Sun and he could get 426 00:22:43,530 --> 00:22:39,120 magnification up to 400 X amazing 427 00:22:49,650 --> 00:22:43,540 amazing so he started to write papers 428 00:22:53,549 --> 00:22:49,660 and he sent them to hook in London book 429 00:22:58,020 --> 00:22:53,559 and he never could read any English nor 430 00:22:59,700 --> 00:22:58,030 nope don't know English so Hooke had 431 00:23:05,010 --> 00:22:59,710 these papers translated and then hook 432 00:23:07,980 --> 00:23:05,020 became so fascinated with luan hook that 433 00:23:11,549 --> 00:23:07,990 he's taught himself Dutch so he could 434 00:23:13,049 --> 00:23:11,559 translate luan hooks papers and luan 435 00:23:15,240 --> 00:23:13,059 hooks papers were published in the 436 00:23:19,350 --> 00:23:15,250 philosophical transactions of the Royal 437 00:23:22,049 --> 00:23:19,360 Society and luayn hook himself was made 438 00:23:26,880 --> 00:23:22,059 a foreign fellow of the Royal Society he 439 00:23:31,049 --> 00:23:26,890 never went to England he never went when 440 00:23:33,480 --> 00:23:31,059 Lewin hoop died he had already made 500 441 00:23:36,590 --> 00:23:33,490 microscopes of which about 300 were in 442 00:23:39,540 --> 00:23:36,600 his collection his sole surviving 443 00:23:43,380 --> 00:23:39,550 offspring Maria his daughter the others 444 00:23:47,940 --> 00:23:43,390 had all died Maria sold the microscopes 445 00:23:49,830 --> 00:23:47,950 at auction for the price of the metal 4 446 00:23:53,190 --> 00:23:49,840 of the microscopes were given to the 447 00:23:55,380 --> 00:23:53,200 Royal Society as gifts when I was 448 00:23:56,669 --> 00:23:55,390 writing my book life's engines I went to 449 00:24:00,350 --> 00:23:56,679 the Royal Society and I know the 450 00:24:02,790 --> 00:24:00,360 librarian and I asked him if I could see 451 00:24:05,160 --> 00:24:02,800 blue and Hook's microscopes and he comes 452 00:24:07,400 --> 00:24:05,170 back with a box with white gloves and 453 00:24:10,320 --> 00:24:07,410 very gently puts it down on the desk 454 00:24:12,540 --> 00:24:10,330 presents me a pair of white gloves opens 455 00:24:14,580 --> 00:24:12,550 the box takes out the microscope and 456 00:24:17,130 --> 00:24:14,590 gives it to me and I'm looking at it as 457 00:24:19,820 --> 00:24:17,140 fascinating it's fascinating he says 458 00:24:23,389 --> 00:24:19,830 it's a reproduction 459 00:24:26,149 --> 00:24:23,399 what he says well we were given four 460 00:24:29,139 --> 00:24:26,159 and fellows through the years borrowed 461 00:24:31,969 --> 00:24:29,149 them and somehow they've never returned 462 00:24:34,369 --> 00:24:31,979 so there are four microscopes sitting in 463 00:24:38,089 --> 00:24:34,379 London in England somewhere hopefully 464 00:24:40,899 --> 00:24:38,099 still that are the original Lewin hooked 465 00:24:44,089 --> 00:24:40,909 microscopes nobody knows where they are 466 00:24:47,409 --> 00:24:44,099 now what did Lewin look really learn 467 00:24:51,589 --> 00:24:47,419 Lewin hook started to describe cells and 468 00:24:55,849 --> 00:24:51,599 he called them anima cools and I really 469 00:24:58,959 --> 00:24:55,859 like this one down here so the anima 470 00:25:02,149 --> 00:24:58,969 cules were thought to be little animals 471 00:25:05,539 --> 00:25:02,159 they had little brains little stomachs 472 00:25:08,119 --> 00:25:05,549 little livers little sex organs there 473 00:25:11,930 --> 00:25:08,129 were just little miniature versions of 474 00:25:17,119 --> 00:25:11,940 animals but then he realized something 475 00:25:21,320 --> 00:25:17,129 which was really interesting he got a 476 00:25:24,769 --> 00:25:21,330 cold Lewin hook did and he started to 477 00:25:27,529 --> 00:25:24,779 take preparations for this cold so he 478 00:25:29,239 --> 00:25:27,539 would put peppers peppercorns in water 479 00:25:30,919 --> 00:25:29,249 and soak it for a couple of days and 480 00:25:33,950 --> 00:25:30,929 then drink it thinking maybe this would 481 00:25:36,979 --> 00:25:33,960 help him taste the terrible and a few 482 00:25:38,269 --> 00:25:36,989 weeks after he was better he realized 483 00:25:40,579 --> 00:25:38,279 that there was a bottle of this 484 00:25:44,029 --> 00:25:40,589 peppercorn sitting on the shelf and it 485 00:25:45,919 --> 00:25:44,039 was cloudy so he took this cloudy water 486 00:25:48,049 --> 00:25:45,929 and he put it in his microscope and with 487 00:25:50,599 --> 00:25:48,059 the highest magnification lenses he 488 00:25:53,690 --> 00:25:50,609 could see very small things that were 489 00:25:57,139 --> 00:25:53,700 running around like this thousands and 490 00:26:00,320 --> 00:25:57,149 thousands and thousands of them and he 491 00:26:01,759 --> 00:26:00,330 wrote a paper to the Royal Society for 492 00:26:04,789 --> 00:26:01,769 the Philosophical Transactions 493 00:26:08,289 --> 00:26:04,799 describing these ultra small animals the 494 00:26:11,659 --> 00:26:08,299 first description of bacteria 495 00:26:13,279 --> 00:26:11,669 well Hooke hadn't had enough I mean he'd 496 00:26:15,529 --> 00:26:13,289 published several of these papers and 497 00:26:21,529 --> 00:26:15,539 now he's getting this total science 498 00:26:23,810 --> 00:26:21,539 fiction so he sends ten people to Delft 499 00:26:25,879 --> 00:26:23,820 including a vicar you know everybody was 500 00:26:29,810 --> 00:26:25,889 a vicar at the time but he sent a vicar 501 00:26:31,430 --> 00:26:29,820 to actually verify that Lewin Hooke 502 00:26:35,329 --> 00:26:31,440 hadn't been drinking too much or wasn't 503 00:26:36,560 --> 00:26:35,339 making up the story so these guys come 504 00:26:38,450 --> 00:26:36,570 to Delft 505 00:26:42,139 --> 00:26:38,460 they look through the microscope and 506 00:26:45,019 --> 00:26:42,149 they believe what Lewin he'll grow so 507 00:26:47,539 --> 00:26:45,029 new and hooked now as prima facie 508 00:26:49,580 --> 00:26:47,549 evidence and witnesses that there are 509 00:26:52,970 --> 00:26:49,590 these microbial organisms that you could 510 00:26:54,769 --> 00:26:52,980 not see even with a lens where you could 511 00:26:57,200 --> 00:26:54,779 see these kinds of guys they're smaller 512 00:26:58,970 --> 00:26:57,210 much smaller than this and then he does 513 00:27:01,999 --> 00:26:58,980 something even more clever in a way and 514 00:27:05,090 --> 00:27:02,009 I'd like this one he takes an old man 515 00:27:07,549 --> 00:27:05,100 whose teeth are rotting and he swabs the 516 00:27:10,570 --> 00:27:07,559 mouth and he observes there's a 517 00:27:15,950 --> 00:27:10,580 microbial Zoo and in this guy's mouth 518 00:27:18,590 --> 00:27:15,960 with rotten teeth he does the same thing 519 00:27:20,570 --> 00:27:18,600 to himself and he realizes that he also 520 00:27:23,629 --> 00:27:20,580 has a microbial Zoo but not nearly as 521 00:27:26,779 --> 00:27:23,639 bad as the guy with the rotten teeth but 522 00:27:29,810 --> 00:27:26,789 then he drinks a hot cup of coffee and 523 00:27:31,940 --> 00:27:29,820 he does the same thing and he realizes 524 00:27:36,379 --> 00:27:31,950 the microbial Zoo is virtually dead from 525 00:27:38,810 --> 00:27:36,389 the hot coffee so is the first time that 526 00:27:41,840 --> 00:27:38,820 we start to realize that microbes could 527 00:27:43,310 --> 00:27:41,850 be killed by heat and we could go on and 528 00:27:45,019 --> 00:27:43,320 on with spontaneous generation I just 529 00:27:50,350 --> 00:27:45,029 want to talk to you for one second and 530 00:27:56,180 --> 00:27:54,860 created by hook we still can't make one 531 00:28:06,230 --> 00:27:56,190 we still don't know how were they're 532 00:28:08,570 --> 00:28:06,240 made it's really amazing to me so I'm 533 00:28:11,090 --> 00:28:08,580 just pointing this out because we can 534 00:28:13,190 --> 00:28:11,100 talk about Luca we can talk about a lot 535 00:28:16,490 --> 00:28:13,200 of things but there are a lot of very 536 00:28:19,340 --> 00:28:16,500 very simple quote simple problems that 537 00:28:21,080 --> 00:28:19,350 are challenging so I want to up for a 538 00:28:22,070 --> 00:28:21,090 little bit now about what's inside the 539 00:28:26,210 --> 00:28:22,080 cells I'm going to look under the hood 540 00:28:30,259 --> 00:28:26,220 for a second with you and I spent most 541 00:28:32,149 --> 00:28:30,269 of my career trying to do this and I 542 00:28:33,830 --> 00:28:32,159 focused on this machine because I've 543 00:28:36,409 --> 00:28:33,840 spent most of my career working on that 544 00:28:40,519 --> 00:28:36,419 machine so I first started working on 545 00:28:42,320 --> 00:28:40,529 this part of the machine oops sorry this 546 00:28:43,879 --> 00:28:42,330 part of the machine photosystem one and 547 00:28:45,139 --> 00:28:43,889 I've spent the last 20 or so years 548 00:28:47,299 --> 00:28:45,149 working on this part of the machine 549 00:28:50,360 --> 00:28:47,309 photosystem 2 and this is the water 550 00:28:51,410 --> 00:28:50,370 splitting business end of the machine 551 00:28:57,940 --> 00:28:51,420 I don't want to go through the whole 552 00:29:04,250 --> 00:28:57,950 story here so basically Eric this is 553 00:29:07,640 --> 00:29:04,260 this is a bifurcating system we split 554 00:29:11,240 --> 00:29:07,650 the water the protons go here the 555 00:29:13,280 --> 00:29:11,250 electrons go there we pump some more 556 00:29:14,840 --> 00:29:13,290 protons the electrons go to pump some 557 00:29:16,930 --> 00:29:14,850 more protons the protons finally go up 558 00:29:19,750 --> 00:29:16,940 there the electron winds up here and 559 00:29:23,860 --> 00:29:19,760 then the protons and electrons meet in 560 00:29:27,169 --> 00:29:23,870 NADPH so we always have this couple 561 00:29:28,790 --> 00:29:27,179 proton electron proton electron proton 562 00:29:32,419 --> 00:29:28,800 electron proton electron that's why 563 00:29:35,110 --> 00:29:32,429 every single electron transfer chain is 564 00:29:39,919 --> 00:29:35,120 working in all of life 565 00:29:42,260 --> 00:29:39,929 what do you why do we do that we do that 566 00:29:43,760 --> 00:29:42,270 because if a bug is making hydrogen it's 567 00:29:45,470 --> 00:29:43,770 screwed if it makes hydrogen the 568 00:29:47,090 --> 00:29:45,480 hydrogen just pops right out of the cell 569 00:29:49,520 --> 00:29:47,100 you can't do a damn thing with it you 570 00:29:51,500 --> 00:29:49,530 keep the hydrogen as protons and 571 00:29:56,600 --> 00:29:51,510 electrons and you can manipulate the 572 00:29:58,010 --> 00:29:56,610 protons and electrons all right I'm not 573 00:29:59,900 --> 00:29:58,020 going to go through the whirligig here 574 00:30:03,140 --> 00:29:59,910 but I want to point out one thing this 575 00:30:04,610 --> 00:30:03,150 is the reaction center as a few years 576 00:30:06,260 --> 00:30:04,620 ago I left this structure here because 577 00:30:10,640 --> 00:30:06,270 it's simple to see this is a ribbon 578 00:30:13,220 --> 00:30:10,650 structure about three years ago Shannon 579 00:30:14,690 --> 00:30:13,230 Okayama University published another we 580 00:30:15,710 --> 00:30:14,700 every year we get a little bit better a 581 00:30:17,870 --> 00:30:15,720 little bit better a little bit better 582 00:30:19,850 --> 00:30:17,880 Shannon is but probably the best in the 583 00:30:21,200 --> 00:30:19,860 world at this now is one of he's been 584 00:30:23,840 --> 00:30:21,210 obsessed with this since he came to 585 00:30:31,490 --> 00:30:23,850 Japan to Renkin I didn't know 2530 years 586 00:30:34,130 --> 00:30:31,500 ago the structures at now about 1.9 587 00:30:37,549 --> 00:30:34,140 angstroms resolution a very very very 588 00:30:39,980 --> 00:30:37,559 high resolution and we know there's a 589 00:30:41,210 --> 00:30:39,990 business end of this structure we know 590 00:30:45,049 --> 00:30:41,220 there are several parts of this 591 00:30:47,210 --> 00:30:45,059 structure that we can trace so this part 592 00:30:49,070 --> 00:30:47,220 of the structure is coming from purple 593 00:30:51,110 --> 00:30:49,080 bacteria and we know there are four 594 00:30:52,910 --> 00:30:51,120 manganese atoms that are sitting at the 595 00:30:54,110 --> 00:30:52,920 bottom end of the structure that are the 596 00:31:00,320 --> 00:30:54,120 business-end that are splitting the 597 00:31:05,300 --> 00:31:00,330 water now 598 00:31:12,840 --> 00:31:08,490 those four manganese atoms are not found 599 00:31:20,430 --> 00:31:12,850 in any known mineral nature made a 600 00:31:23,070 --> 00:31:20,440 mineral there are 31 manganese 601 00:31:25,590 --> 00:31:23,080 containing minerals that I know of that 602 00:31:30,540 --> 00:31:25,600 Bob downs tells me have a cubane 603 00:31:32,610 --> 00:31:30,550 structure of manganese but not with a 604 00:31:34,350 --> 00:31:32,620 calcium and not in that configuration 605 00:31:39,690 --> 00:31:34,360 and they can't split water than I know 606 00:31:42,390 --> 00:31:39,700 of now they're found in bacteria so they 607 00:31:44,010 --> 00:31:42,400 evolved in cyanobacteria once and then 608 00:31:45,930 --> 00:31:44,020 they were spread across many clades so 609 00:31:47,640 --> 00:31:45,940 this is a diatom this is a Kaka Luthor 610 00:31:50,460 --> 00:31:47,650 for and of course they became higher 611 00:31:53,040 --> 00:31:50,470 plants so this is all higher land plants 612 00:31:55,500 --> 00:31:53,050 right there and you could see that 613 00:31:57,780 --> 00:31:55,510 they're distributed on many many many 614 00:32:00,150 --> 00:31:57,790 eukaryotic lineages but only one 615 00:32:03,840 --> 00:32:00,160 prokaryotic lineages is capable of 616 00:32:06,330 --> 00:32:03,850 putting water extant so this is 617 00:32:08,520 --> 00:32:06,340 horizontal gene transfer in a massive 618 00:32:10,170 --> 00:32:08,530 way we call it endosymbiosis it's 619 00:32:11,790 --> 00:32:10,180 basically another fancy term for 620 00:32:13,530 --> 00:32:11,800 horizontal gene transfer 621 00:32:21,990 --> 00:32:13,540 instead of taking three genes or five 622 00:32:25,890 --> 00:32:22,000 genes you're taking 140 genes and of 623 00:32:28,380 --> 00:32:25,900 course on a global scale we have great 624 00:32:33,330 --> 00:32:28,390 satellite images and I've spent a large 625 00:32:38,970 --> 00:32:33,340 portion of my career working on this so 626 00:32:41,130 --> 00:32:38,980 this is what these things do today so 627 00:32:43,710 --> 00:32:41,140 these are actually obviously satellite 628 00:32:46,200 --> 00:32:43,720 images in false color but but you could 629 00:32:48,390 --> 00:32:46,210 see on land and in the ocean these guys 630 00:32:56,370 --> 00:32:48,400 become the major engine of life on the 631 00:32:58,290 --> 00:32:56,380 planet and as roll hare said a little 632 00:32:59,550 --> 00:32:58,300 bit of that sinks but now I want to get 633 00:33:00,800 --> 00:32:59,560 into something a little bit more 634 00:33:03,780 --> 00:33:00,810 profound 635 00:33:05,190 --> 00:33:03,790 it doesn't just sink everywhere I mean 636 00:33:07,170 --> 00:33:05,200 it does sink everywhere but it doesn't 637 00:33:09,930 --> 00:33:07,180 matter if it sinks in the middle of the 638 00:33:12,000 --> 00:33:09,940 deep ocean it's not going to get into 639 00:33:13,210 --> 00:33:12,010 the sediments of the deep ocean it gets 640 00:33:17,350 --> 00:33:13,220 oxidized before it get 641 00:33:19,060 --> 00:33:17,360 there it's shallow seas and continental 642 00:33:27,669 --> 00:33:19,070 margins where this organic matter 643 00:33:32,730 --> 00:33:27,679 originally gets to positive and because 644 00:33:35,230 --> 00:33:32,740 of the Wilson cycle which Everett 645 00:33:38,080 --> 00:33:35,240 alluded to but didn't really describe in 646 00:33:39,880 --> 00:33:38,090 in this sense that was that Wilson 647 00:33:43,060 --> 00:33:39,890 really thought this through quite 648 00:33:48,370 --> 00:33:43,070 interestingly so this stable crate on 649 00:33:53,529 --> 00:33:48,380 which is the accumulated bit of light 650 00:33:56,169 --> 00:33:53,539 rock floats and it's very thick so it's 651 00:33:58,120 --> 00:33:56,179 heat conduction is very weak whereas the 652 00:33:59,980 --> 00:33:58,130 thin little bit of basalt out here gets 653 00:34:01,810 --> 00:33:59,990 heat can go through it pretty early so 654 00:34:04,149 --> 00:34:01,820 if I put a candle under here the 655 00:34:06,640 --> 00:34:04,159 Archimedes principle in the candle I can 656 00:34:09,760 --> 00:34:06,650 break this in principle this is the idea 657 00:34:12,629 --> 00:34:09,770 and then we start to fill in the gap by 658 00:34:18,060 --> 00:34:12,639 making more basalt and pushing these two 659 00:34:22,270 --> 00:34:18,070 bits of kraton away now here's the gig 660 00:34:25,119 --> 00:34:22,280 at some point when that basalt becomes 661 00:34:28,540 --> 00:34:25,129 cooler and heavier it's going to subduct 662 00:34:30,369 --> 00:34:28,550 so this is the Atlantic Ocean today now 663 00:34:33,609 --> 00:34:30,379 it turns out that California is not 664 00:34:35,829 --> 00:34:33,619 going to bump into Japan it's going to 665 00:34:38,980 --> 00:34:35,839 go back and bump into France or at least 666 00:34:40,780 --> 00:34:38,990 you New Yorker bump into France so we'll 667 00:34:45,250 --> 00:34:40,790 have American fries will become french 668 00:34:46,960 --> 00:34:45,260 fries again that little bit of organic 669 00:34:50,500 --> 00:34:46,970 matter that is on continental shelves 670 00:34:57,480 --> 00:34:50,510 will be shaved off and uplifted onto the 671 00:35:00,190 --> 00:34:57,490 crate on if it just stayed in the ocean 672 00:35:02,430 --> 00:35:00,200 we would not have appreciable amounts of 673 00:35:05,920 --> 00:35:02,440 oxygen it would be subducted and burned 674 00:35:09,010 --> 00:35:05,930 you have to get it out of the cycle you 675 00:35:11,770 --> 00:35:09,020 lift it up onto the crate on so where 676 00:35:15,460 --> 00:35:11,780 does the candy get hidden the lockbox of 677 00:35:17,770 --> 00:35:15,470 the candy is in rocks so here's an 678 00:35:20,530 --> 00:35:17,780 example a very dramatic example from 679 00:35:22,420 --> 00:35:20,540 Spain this is my former postdoc vashvan 680 00:35:24,520 --> 00:35:22,430 shortened brook and we were working on 681 00:35:27,040 --> 00:35:24,530 this sequence here this is a very nice 682 00:35:28,230 --> 00:35:27,050 sequence but these are black shales mud 683 00:35:32,710 --> 00:35:28,240 stones black shells they've become 684 00:35:37,690 --> 00:35:32,720 repositories on land of the reducing 685 00:35:39,460 --> 00:35:37,700 equivalents allowing the oxygen now for 686 00:35:42,060 --> 00:35:39,470 those of you who are students I'm going 687 00:35:45,100 --> 00:35:42,070 to give you a little puzzler 688 00:35:47,980 --> 00:35:45,110 there's 21% oxygen by mass in the 689 00:35:50,260 --> 00:35:47,990 atmosphere if I converted it back to 690 00:35:51,790 --> 00:35:50,270 water got rid of all the oxygen the 691 00:35:56,400 --> 00:35:51,800 atmosphere converted it back to water 692 00:36:01,840 --> 00:35:56,410 how high were the sea level rise okay 693 00:36:04,900 --> 00:36:01,850 just you can do that now we went through 694 00:36:07,030 --> 00:36:04,910 this so we go from this first half of 695 00:36:09,040 --> 00:36:07,040 Earth's history we're reduced then we 696 00:36:11,080 --> 00:36:09,050 have some oxidation event so the 697 00:36:13,480 --> 00:36:11,090 oxidation event is not just simply 698 00:36:15,190 --> 00:36:13,490 because of the evolution of that for 699 00:36:18,190 --> 00:36:15,200 manganese cluster at the bottom of 700 00:36:21,400 --> 00:36:18,200 photosystem 2 it's also the ability to 701 00:36:27,520 --> 00:36:21,410 bury and store that organic matter and 702 00:36:31,390 --> 00:36:27,530 take it out of this cycle so the first 703 00:36:35,380 --> 00:36:31,400 half of Earth's history we have a 704 00:36:39,610 --> 00:36:35,390 relatively stable condition and somehow 705 00:36:43,000 --> 00:36:39,620 and I don't know exactly how the ball 706 00:36:46,770 --> 00:36:43,010 flipped into a second Bowl and it's 707 00:36:51,820 --> 00:36:46,780 stable again and we're not going back 708 00:36:57,490 --> 00:36:51,830 we're not going back it's directional so 709 00:36:59,170 --> 00:36:57,500 it's a two-state problem now several 710 00:37:00,700 --> 00:36:59,180 years ago and this is the meat of the 711 00:37:02,680 --> 00:37:00,710 paper or the meat of the talk 712 00:37:06,520 --> 00:37:02,690 it's an old paper but it's still a meat 713 00:37:08,500 --> 00:37:06,530 of the talk Tom pencil and Ed's along 714 00:37:10,810 --> 00:37:08,510 and I sat down with Tom for a long time 715 00:37:14,320 --> 00:37:10,820 and in in my office and I said you know 716 00:37:18,160 --> 00:37:14,330 I really want to draw the wiring diagram 717 00:37:20,020 --> 00:37:18,170 of the planet and this is the wiring 718 00:37:21,700 --> 00:37:20,030 we've left out a few things I didn't put 719 00:37:24,370 --> 00:37:21,710 arson a terse eliminated and stuff in 720 00:37:26,620 --> 00:37:24,380 here this is kind of secondary we put in 721 00:37:28,630 --> 00:37:26,630 the major wiring diagrams of the planet 722 00:37:31,630 --> 00:37:28,640 so this is the electron this is The Keg 723 00:37:33,850 --> 00:37:31,640 diagram if you will with just the wires 724 00:37:36,160 --> 00:37:33,860 okay so this is the metabolic map of 725 00:37:37,840 --> 00:37:36,170 planet Earth and it may look a little 726 00:37:40,329 --> 00:37:37,850 bit like this actually this is a little 727 00:37:45,219 --> 00:37:40,339 simpler to to follow than the one I drew 728 00:37:48,069 --> 00:37:45,229 showed you but I asked my graduate 729 00:37:52,479 --> 00:37:48,079 student Ben Yellen a few years ago to 730 00:37:55,329 --> 00:37:52,489 annotate that map and if you take away 731 00:37:58,870 --> 00:37:55,339 all the orthologues and paralogs what 732 00:38:03,509 --> 00:37:58,880 you get is 392 genes that move all the 733 00:38:09,420 --> 00:38:03,519 electrons all around all of Earth only 734 00:38:13,870 --> 00:38:09,430 392 genes that's not a lot 735 00:38:16,620 --> 00:38:13,880 now those 392 genes are responsible for 736 00:38:21,609 --> 00:38:16,630 all of this type of metabolism all of it 737 00:38:24,549 --> 00:38:21,619 and you might not be surprised but those 738 00:38:26,650 --> 00:38:24,559 oxido reductase is 45% of the oxido 739 00:38:30,459 --> 00:38:26,660 reductase is contain transition metals 740 00:38:32,769 --> 00:38:30,469 and while zinc is a transition metal 741 00:38:34,719 --> 00:38:32,779 it's not found in the oxido reductase is 742 00:38:37,150 --> 00:38:34,729 so the transition metals of zinc zinc 743 00:38:37,680 --> 00:38:37,160 actually can be oxidized obviously zinc 744 00:38:40,180 --> 00:38:37,690 too 745 00:38:42,249 --> 00:38:40,190 but those electrons are not coming from 746 00:38:44,140 --> 00:38:42,259 the normal shells of the transition 747 00:38:50,829 --> 00:38:44,150 metals this is acting more like calcium 748 00:38:52,839 --> 00:38:50,839 or magnesium so I'm going to go into 749 00:38:54,969 --> 00:38:52,849 this I'm going to focus on the sequences 750 00:38:56,890 --> 00:38:54,979 and folds for a second the evolution of 751 00:39:00,130 --> 00:38:56,900 these structures is what we've been 752 00:39:01,450 --> 00:39:00,140 working on with Vic for years and the 753 00:39:03,430 --> 00:39:01,460 paradox of structure and sequence 754 00:39:05,620 --> 00:39:03,440 diversion is one that I want to not 755 00:39:08,079 --> 00:39:05,630 dwell on we can talk about it later 756 00:39:10,180 --> 00:39:08,089 but I really think that this from this 757 00:39:12,219 --> 00:39:10,190 is a throwaway line from from from 758 00:39:14,650 --> 00:39:12,229 Margaret Dayhoff spay / that was been 759 00:39:16,709 --> 00:39:14,660 cited a couple of times now from 1966 760 00:39:19,809 --> 00:39:16,719 the processes of natural selection 761 00:39:22,059 --> 00:39:19,819 severely inhibit any change in a well 762 00:39:24,819 --> 00:39:22,069 adapted system on which several other 763 00:39:27,279 --> 00:39:24,829 essential components depend and that's 764 00:39:29,589 --> 00:39:27,289 why you don't see massive changes in 765 00:39:31,959 --> 00:39:29,599 Rubisco evolution massive changes in 766 00:39:39,950 --> 00:39:31,969 nitrogenous evolution massive changes in 767 00:39:42,349 --> 00:39:39,960 d1 evolution now I think about 768 00:39:44,390 --> 00:39:42,359 from a point of view one you know I went 769 00:39:46,700 --> 00:39:44,400 to a Technical High School I was trained 770 00:39:48,440 --> 00:39:46,710 in engineering and so electrical 771 00:39:50,420 --> 00:39:48,450 engineering you know we all think about 772 00:39:52,310 --> 00:39:50,430 circuit diagrams so I think about just 773 00:39:54,260 --> 00:39:52,320 think about the analogy of the planet of 774 00:39:56,990 --> 00:39:54,270 the surface of the planet as a circuit 775 00:39:59,810 --> 00:39:57,000 board so you have a power supply one 776 00:40:04,849 --> 00:39:59,820 major power supply the Sun you have two 777 00:40:07,190 --> 00:40:04,859 wires the ocean and the atmosphere those 778 00:40:08,839 --> 00:40:07,200 are the two wires and then everything 779 00:40:11,450 --> 00:40:08,849 else on the planet that is moving 780 00:40:13,609 --> 00:40:11,460 electrons is basically is alive there's 781 00:40:15,710 --> 00:40:13,619 some exceptions but mostly they're alive 782 00:40:19,070 --> 00:40:15,720 so these are organisms that are acting 783 00:40:23,030 --> 00:40:19,080 primarily as transistors moving 784 00:40:25,370 --> 00:40:23,040 electrons well alright let's follow that 785 00:40:28,160 --> 00:40:25,380 analogy for a bit what's in what's 786 00:40:31,280 --> 00:40:28,170 doping those transistors well not 787 00:40:32,930 --> 00:40:31,290 surprisingly of the 45% of the oxido 788 00:40:36,109 --> 00:40:32,940 reductase --is that contain transition 789 00:40:45,109 --> 00:40:36,119 metals the other 55% contained nadh or 790 00:40:47,720 --> 00:40:45,119 fadh2 the electrons the vast majority of 791 00:40:52,160 --> 00:40:47,730 them contain iron as either iron or iron 792 00:40:54,260 --> 00:40:52,170 sulphur or he there's copper manganese 793 00:40:56,120 --> 00:40:54,270 nickel a little bit of molybdenum and 794 00:41:00,440 --> 00:40:56,130 then you have a little bit of cobalt and 795 00:41:03,050 --> 00:41:00,450 blah blah so the biggies are iron copper 796 00:41:05,900 --> 00:41:03,060 manganese a little bit of nickel a 797 00:41:08,060 --> 00:41:05,910 little bit of molybdenum and of course 798 00:41:11,780 --> 00:41:08,070 then we've looked at these folds so so 799 00:41:13,609 --> 00:41:11,790 this is the classic ferredoxin fold the 800 00:41:15,290 --> 00:41:13,619 sistine coordinated for cysteine is 801 00:41:17,660 --> 00:41:15,300 coordinated with the cysteine x axis 802 00:41:19,040 --> 00:41:17,670 teen XX cysteine xx and then you go on 803 00:41:23,329 --> 00:41:19,050 to the fourth cysteine wrapping it 804 00:41:26,510 --> 00:41:23,339 around and that fold you can see is is 805 00:41:28,070 --> 00:41:26,520 is everywhere when you have iron sulfur 806 00:41:30,200 --> 00:41:28,080 clusters and I just want to point out 807 00:41:32,240 --> 00:41:30,210 for those of you that are not molecular 808 00:41:34,940 --> 00:41:32,250 structural biologists you can see all 809 00:41:39,770 --> 00:41:34,950 three secondary structures here so this 810 00:41:45,410 --> 00:41:39,780 is a sheet a loop of the loop here and a 811 00:41:48,109 --> 00:41:45,420 helix now this is nitrogenase and I 812 00:41:53,570 --> 00:41:48,119 would argue the first order this is a 813 00:41:56,240 --> 00:41:53,580 super paradox type of fold 814 00:41:58,160 --> 00:41:56,250 and then we have other kinds of folds 815 00:42:00,800 --> 00:41:58,170 imidazole nitrogen z' that are 816 00:42:03,320 --> 00:42:00,810 coordinated to copper plus the sign and 817 00:42:05,390 --> 00:42:03,330 type of fold and the manganese fold for 818 00:42:08,570 --> 00:42:05,400 example into oxide super oxide dismutase 819 00:42:12,260 --> 00:42:08,580 and as Vic was explaining yesterday we 820 00:42:15,110 --> 00:42:12,270 have tried to do a molecular autopsy if 821 00:42:17,000 --> 00:42:15,120 you will a structural autopsy huh guys 822 00:42:19,810 --> 00:42:17,010 have been doing this with Vic and and 823 00:42:22,160 --> 00:42:19,820 Doug Pike and I think a yeoman's job and 824 00:42:24,770 --> 00:42:22,170 coming out with this network of the 825 00:42:27,500 --> 00:42:24,780 major folds of the metal containing 826 00:42:29,000 --> 00:42:27,510 proteins that are moving electrons all 827 00:42:31,610 --> 00:42:29,010 across the Tree of Life and there are 828 00:42:33,800 --> 00:42:31,620 these four so similar in we have the 829 00:42:36,170 --> 00:42:33,810 ferredoxin fold the cytochrome c fold 830 00:42:37,760 --> 00:42:36,180 this is the heme and then a ferry dock I 831 00:42:41,510 --> 00:42:37,770 mean a clasp design and for containing 832 00:42:44,360 --> 00:42:41,520 the copper no I don't know the real 833 00:42:46,460 --> 00:42:44,370 number but there appear to be I think 834 00:42:49,430 --> 00:42:46,470 there will be about twelve or so maybe 835 00:42:51,140 --> 00:42:49,440 fifteen core structural motifs and all 836 00:42:58,420 --> 00:42:51,150 the electron proton transfer reactions 837 00:43:02,630 --> 00:43:00,980 now deciphering one of the things we're 838 00:43:04,220 --> 00:43:02,640 trying to do I call it a grand challenge 839 00:43:08,960 --> 00:43:04,230 this is a grand challenge because we're 840 00:43:11,840 --> 00:43:08,970 trying to figure out how these are 841 00:43:14,030 --> 00:43:11,850 little little tiny bits of the proteins 842 00:43:16,930 --> 00:43:14,040 the extant proteins probably moved 843 00:43:21,710 --> 00:43:16,940 electrons around early on to create 844 00:43:25,340 --> 00:43:21,720 metabolism not of a cell per se but in a 845 00:43:28,390 --> 00:43:25,350 global sense and here's something that's 846 00:43:32,390 --> 00:43:28,400 old but new and I think about it a lot 847 00:43:36,050 --> 00:43:32,400 so and John Kim who was a PhD student 848 00:43:40,430 --> 00:43:36,060 with us at the time he arranged all at 849 00:43:43,580 --> 00:43:40,440 that time the major metal containing 850 00:43:45,890 --> 00:43:43,590 proteins into this isosceles triangle of 851 00:43:49,310 --> 00:43:45,900 a hundred percent sheet 100 percent loop 852 00:43:50,900 --> 00:43:49,320 or a hundred percent helix and one you 853 00:43:53,240 --> 00:43:50,910 could do that you can make a Euclidean 854 00:43:56,120 --> 00:43:53,250 vector from point to point to point and 855 00:43:59,000 --> 00:43:56,130 develop a tree and before we do that by 856 00:44:01,790 --> 00:43:59,010 the by this is if you're obviously a 857 00:44:03,980 --> 00:44:01,800 loop you're sitting here you have very 858 00:44:06,440 --> 00:44:03,990 very few hydrogen bonds you're very 859 00:44:07,310 --> 00:44:06,450 floppy and flexible when you get down to 860 00:44:14,060 --> 00:44:07,320 of 861 00:44:16,580 --> 00:44:14,070 a sheet very very very sheet if you will 862 00:44:18,920 --> 00:44:16,590 or very very very helix e if you will 863 00:44:21,530 --> 00:44:18,930 you're pretty stiff a lot of hydrogen 864 00:44:24,680 --> 00:44:21,540 bonds so if you're thinking about 865 00:44:27,260 --> 00:44:24,690 promiscuity of electrons moving through 866 00:44:34,190 --> 00:44:27,270 something you're more promiscuous here 867 00:44:38,210 --> 00:44:34,200 you're less promiscuous here all right 868 00:44:43,420 --> 00:44:38,220 and this is a secondary structural tree 869 00:44:48,530 --> 00:44:43,430 of these proteins so here you can see 870 00:44:52,100 --> 00:44:48,540 that some of the earliest protein folds 871 00:44:57,260 --> 00:44:52,110 are in an iron hydrogenous they're very 872 00:45:01,640 --> 00:44:57,270 close to the ferredoxin fold and we walk 873 00:45:05,510 --> 00:45:01,650 down and walk down and walk down and one 874 00:45:09,200 --> 00:45:05,520 of the last structures to evolve or at 875 00:45:12,820 --> 00:45:09,210 least in terms of complexity in the 876 00:45:15,230 --> 00:45:12,830 helix clade is the cytochrome C oxidase 877 00:45:18,290 --> 00:45:15,240 that's the enzyme that is allowing you 878 00:45:26,350 --> 00:45:18,300 to put the electrons onto oxygen to make 879 00:45:28,910 --> 00:45:26,360 water and it contains copper now today 880 00:45:30,590 --> 00:45:28,920 you know almost all these electron 881 00:45:34,220 --> 00:45:30,600 transfer reactions are driven by light 882 00:45:38,980 --> 00:45:34,230 not by heat and I just want to point 883 00:45:42,710 --> 00:45:38,990 this out because here's where we have a 884 00:45:45,710 --> 00:45:42,720 stone that is really missing in my head 885 00:45:48,350 --> 00:45:45,720 and we're working on this and I don't 886 00:45:50,270 --> 00:45:48,360 know if I'm going to see a solution to 887 00:45:55,700 --> 00:45:50,280 this in my lifetime but let's just think 888 00:45:57,200 --> 00:45:55,710 about this for a minute this is a solar 889 00:46:02,810 --> 00:45:57,210 energy at the top of the atmosphere and 890 00:46:08,380 --> 00:46:02,820 these lines by the way is that noise is 891 00:46:11,150 --> 00:46:08,390 that noise it's not noise what is that 892 00:46:13,370 --> 00:46:11,160 why are those lines there huh their 893 00:46:16,220 --> 00:46:13,380 absorption but what do we call it what's 894 00:46:18,290 --> 00:46:16,230 the Fraunhofer lines right so you're 895 00:46:19,760 --> 00:46:18,300 looking you're looking now at elements 896 00:46:21,019 --> 00:46:19,770 on the corona of the Sun that are 897 00:46:23,120 --> 00:46:21,029 absorbing in 898 00:46:24,439 --> 00:46:23,130 lines right they're not bands because 899 00:46:26,779 --> 00:46:24,449 they're not molecules they're elements 900 00:46:31,009 --> 00:46:26,789 that are absorbing in lines this is how 901 00:46:34,009 --> 00:46:31,019 we develop quantum mechanics they're 902 00:46:38,809 --> 00:46:34,019 quantized now at the top of the 903 00:46:42,079 --> 00:46:38,819 atmosphere today whoops there's a lot of 904 00:46:44,329 --> 00:46:42,089 UV light that is attenuated by ozone but 905 00:46:46,640 --> 00:46:44,339 in the Archaean we didn't have ozone we 906 00:46:47,949 --> 00:46:46,650 think so this light would have reached 907 00:46:51,380 --> 00:46:47,959 the surface of the planet 908 00:46:52,429 --> 00:46:51,390 now ozone when it attenuates the light 909 00:46:56,149 --> 00:46:52,439 cut that out 910 00:46:58,069 --> 00:46:56,159 but up until the great oxidation event 911 00:47:00,469 --> 00:46:58,079 which is how we actually define it from 912 00:47:02,469 --> 00:47:00,479 the mass independent to mass dependent 913 00:47:05,509 --> 00:47:02,479 sulphur isotope fractionation which is 914 00:47:11,539 --> 00:47:05,519 apparently due to the evolution of ozone 915 00:47:12,979 --> 00:47:11,549 itself this UV light would have hit the 916 00:47:16,880 --> 00:47:12,989 surface of the earth now I just want to 917 00:47:18,919 --> 00:47:16,890 point out it one more thing it is 918 00:47:21,739 --> 00:47:18,929 commonly thought that UV light is highly 919 00:47:25,789 --> 00:47:21,749 attenuated by the ocean by seawater it's 920 00:47:27,709 --> 00:47:25,799 not true UV light is pretty penetrable 921 00:47:32,929 --> 00:47:27,719 as long as they're not lots of organics 922 00:47:34,579 --> 00:47:32,939 who absorb it now this is an experiment 923 00:47:36,049 --> 00:47:34,589 that was done by the same John Kim who 924 00:47:39,229 --> 00:47:36,059 did the isosceles triangle of the 925 00:47:42,349 --> 00:47:39,239 structural tree but he was he's a pretty 926 00:47:45,140 --> 00:47:42,359 interesting character we make city right 927 00:47:46,849 --> 00:47:45,150 which is iron carbonate and iron 928 00:47:48,589 --> 00:47:46,859 carbonate has an anti-bonding orbital 929 00:47:50,959 --> 00:47:48,599 about 4.8 electron volts and that's 930 00:47:55,489 --> 00:47:50,969 calculable I mean it's you you don't 931 00:47:58,339 --> 00:47:55,499 need you just do spectrum so if you can 932 00:48:01,489 --> 00:47:58,349 populate the anti-bonding orbital with 933 00:48:04,279 --> 00:48:01,499 photons you can oxidize the iron 2 to 934 00:48:07,069 --> 00:48:04,289 iron 3 under anaerobic conditions you 935 00:48:09,099 --> 00:48:07,079 don't need oxygen just need photons a 936 00:48:12,469 --> 00:48:09,109 photon will pop an electron off of iron 937 00:48:15,799 --> 00:48:12,479 easily so what does that correspond to 938 00:48:20,419 --> 00:48:15,809 that corresponds to a wavelength of 939 00:48:22,130 --> 00:48:20,429 approximately 280 nanometers and here 940 00:48:24,169 --> 00:48:22,140 you can see I don't know if you can see 941 00:48:27,199 --> 00:48:24,179 it but here you can see we we just 942 00:48:29,089 --> 00:48:27,209 irradiated it with a on our clamp for a 943 00:48:31,789 --> 00:48:29,099 while so you could see that we could 944 00:48:33,289 --> 00:48:31,799 blow off the electrons right there so 945 00:48:34,820 --> 00:48:33,299 follow the electrons what did we do with 946 00:48:36,710 --> 00:48:34,830 the electrons by the way here's 947 00:48:38,570 --> 00:48:36,720 here's what happens to the iron this is 948 00:48:40,910 --> 00:48:38,580 Sidda right this is the product the 949 00:48:43,220 --> 00:48:40,920 product is magnetite ultimately in the 950 00:48:46,490 --> 00:48:43,230 presence of oxygen but you can see that 951 00:48:49,100 --> 00:48:46,500 we get we get magnetic fields that are 952 00:48:53,420 --> 00:48:49,110 induced from this from this photo 953 00:48:57,530 --> 00:48:53,430 oxidation and here's the absorption 954 00:49:11,780 --> 00:48:57,540 maximum it's 270 or so and it's a two 955 00:49:13,550 --> 00:49:11,790 photon reaction the product is h2 we can 956 00:49:15,890 --> 00:49:13,560 do the same thing and this is a 957 00:49:19,220 --> 00:49:15,900 preliminary experiment but with magnet 958 00:49:23,840 --> 00:49:19,230 manganese carbonate we can oxidize 959 00:49:27,440 --> 00:49:23,850 manganese 2 to manganese 4 and here you 960 00:49:32,270 --> 00:49:27,450 see an HPLC diagram and make form a 961 00:49:41,510 --> 00:49:32,280 formic acid we can also make 962 00:49:48,350 --> 00:49:41,520 formaldehyde just water manganese 963 00:49:54,830 --> 00:49:48,360 carbonate UV light and it goes now I'm 964 00:49:57,620 --> 00:49:54,840 going to end this this talk for a while 965 00:50:01,360 --> 00:49:57,630 I was the only biologist actually I was 966 00:50:03,110 --> 00:50:01,370 the only biologist that was on the 967 00:50:05,300 --> 00:50:03,120 scientific working group for the 968 00:50:07,610 --> 00:50:05,310 terrestrial planet finder and I I joined 969 00:50:09,020 --> 00:50:07,620 the the interferometer group so the 970 00:50:10,310 --> 00:50:09,030 interferometer group was one of the more 971 00:50:12,980 --> 00:50:10,320 interesting groups that I had worked on 972 00:50:17,740 --> 00:50:12,990 so they wanted to put an interferometer 973 00:50:20,660 --> 00:50:17,750 at L to the Lagrangian point too and 974 00:50:24,830 --> 00:50:20,670 NASA got scared they couldn't they 975 00:50:29,870 --> 00:50:24,840 didn't want to invest in a program 976 00:50:31,910 --> 00:50:29,880 apparently where three or four 977 00:50:34,520 --> 00:50:31,920 satellites had to fly in formation at l2 978 00:50:37,370 --> 00:50:34,530 with very very very little chatter 979 00:50:39,800 --> 00:50:37,380 between them I mean a small amount of 980 00:50:42,770 --> 00:50:39,810 wiggle and you lose the you lose the 981 00:50:44,540 --> 00:50:42,780 image but the interferometer was able to 982 00:50:46,880 --> 00:50:44,550 null out this is the cool part of the 983 00:50:48,470 --> 00:50:46,890 interferometer why you want to look at 984 00:50:53,450 --> 00:50:48,480 the dark side of a planet as 985 00:50:55,370 --> 00:50:53,460 comes in front of its Sun right and you 986 00:50:57,109 --> 00:50:55,380 want to know lout the background star so 987 00:51:00,109 --> 00:50:57,119 the interferometer was capable of 988 00:51:04,790 --> 00:51:00,119 knowing the background star 210 to this 989 00:51:06,680 --> 00:51:04,800 sixth so you had incredibly small small 990 00:51:10,070 --> 00:51:06,690 small amounts of photons coming from the 991 00:51:13,880 --> 00:51:10,080 store and by looking in the IR you could 992 00:51:17,420 --> 00:51:13,890 crop price possibly capture the infrared 993 00:51:21,290 --> 00:51:17,430 absorption of the gases if there are any 994 00:51:25,849 --> 00:51:21,300 on that planetary body and they were 995 00:51:28,520 --> 00:51:25,859 going out to about 5.5 parsecs roughly 996 00:51:31,070 --> 00:51:28,530 the stare time would be about one month 997 00:51:34,700 --> 00:51:31,080 for a planetary body I'm sure we could 998 00:51:36,620 --> 00:51:34,710 probably do better now but the idea was 999 00:51:40,370 --> 00:51:36,630 killed ultimately in the last decade 1000 00:51:42,260 --> 00:51:40,380 Olivia and the Darwin an analog of this 1001 00:51:45,320 --> 00:51:42,270 in the European Space Agency ultimately 1002 00:51:47,359 --> 00:51:45,330 was killed and so we have nothing so now 1003 00:51:51,170 --> 00:51:47,369 what do we look at we look at limb then 1004 00:51:55,640 --> 00:51:51,180 measurements horrible horrible the 1005 00:51:59,120 --> 00:51:55,650 number of photons you get it's just it's 1006 00:52:01,490 --> 00:51:59,130 not a good way to you can do better this 1007 00:52:03,440 --> 00:52:01,500 is what you do when you trying to do it 1008 00:52:06,410 --> 00:52:03,450 and astronomers are very good at 1009 00:52:08,900 --> 00:52:06,420 addition and subtraction but you know 1010 00:52:09,980 --> 00:52:08,910 here you have a lot of noise so we're 1011 00:52:13,310 --> 00:52:09,990 trying to get the glow some other 1012 00:52:16,070 --> 00:52:13,320 planets and of course what are the gases 1013 00:52:20,690 --> 00:52:16,080 that we want to look for and what are 1014 00:52:23,660 --> 00:52:20,700 those Suites of gases that's of course 1015 00:52:25,370 --> 00:52:23,670 one of the big debates right now I'm not 1016 00:52:28,040 --> 00:52:25,380 going to enter that debate here in this 1017 00:52:30,800 --> 00:52:28,050 this lecture so I want to conclude by 1018 00:52:32,330 --> 00:52:30,810 first of all thinking about this but 1019 00:52:34,280 --> 00:52:32,340 first two-and-a-half years of Earth's 1020 00:52:38,510 --> 00:52:34,290 history were a research and development 1021 00:52:43,099 --> 00:52:38,520 phase this is when Apple was really 1022 00:52:44,960 --> 00:52:43,109 cooking okay or this was this was the 1023 00:52:49,609 --> 00:52:44,970 phase when a core set of metabolic 1024 00:52:52,760 --> 00:52:49,619 machines evolved and after that the 1025 00:52:58,820 --> 00:52:52,770 factory shut down all they did was 1026 00:53:00,800 --> 00:52:58,830 invent bodies to put the machines in all 1027 00:53:02,630 --> 00:53:00,810 of the key metabolic processes were 1028 00:53:04,880 --> 00:53:02,640 evolved in 1029 00:53:08,780 --> 00:53:04,890 and they're only approximately 400 1030 00:53:10,849 --> 00:53:08,790 metabolic genes so the machinery really 1031 00:53:12,849 --> 00:53:10,859 wasn't that complicated I don't know why 1032 00:53:15,620 --> 00:53:12,859 we try to you know I don't know how many 1033 00:53:17,089 --> 00:53:15,630 genes we've identified but really we're 1034 00:53:19,640 --> 00:53:17,099 spending a lot of time looking at 1035 00:53:22,280 --> 00:53:19,650 whether the color of the bug is brown or 1036 00:53:24,050 --> 00:53:22,290 green or red or it has chrome on the 1037 00:53:27,050 --> 00:53:24,060 trim or doesn't have chrome on the trim 1038 00:53:30,440 --> 00:53:27,060 or whether it has electric windows or 1039 00:53:32,990 --> 00:53:30,450 this is totally irrelevant for the most 1040 00:53:38,480 --> 00:53:33,000 part you want to get down and figure out 1041 00:53:44,690 --> 00:53:38,490 how the Pistons work right or whether 1042 00:53:47,390 --> 00:53:44,700 it's got a jet engine the metabolic 1043 00:53:49,760 --> 00:53:47,400 sequences are coupled on local scales 1044 00:53:53,079 --> 00:53:49,770 obviously but studying this in a test 1045 00:53:56,000 --> 00:53:53,089 tube is not the only way to do this and 1046 00:53:57,620 --> 00:53:56,010 so isotopes are a way to do this but I 1047 00:54:01,190 --> 00:53:57,630 think there are other ways to do this 1048 00:54:03,680 --> 00:54:01,200 and you can facilitate electron markets 1049 00:54:06,650 --> 00:54:03,690 and that's what it is in a way and so 1050 00:54:10,760 --> 00:54:06,660 here's really a challenge in a sense to 1051 00:54:16,809 --> 00:54:10,770 Nigel and others much more smart than I 1052 00:54:19,250 --> 00:54:16,819 am can you invent a planet that is got a 1053 00:54:21,109 --> 00:54:19,260 homeostatic environment for millions of 1054 00:54:25,370 --> 00:54:21,119 years with gas compositions that don't 1055 00:54:28,220 --> 00:54:25,380 change appreciably with metabolic fluxes 1056 00:54:30,170 --> 00:54:28,230 that are incredibly high and yet the 1057 00:54:39,079 --> 00:54:30,180 oxygen concentration is going up and 1058 00:54:43,099 --> 00:54:39,089 down like this it's really hard bang it 1059 00:54:51,460 --> 00:54:43,109 you know bang it with a meteorite 65 1060 00:54:56,180 --> 00:54:53,810 now and the contemporary electron 1061 00:54:59,990 --> 00:54:56,190 potential is driven by light so with 1062 00:55:02,210 --> 00:55:00,000 that I just want to thank many people 1063 00:55:03,470 --> 00:55:02,220 more than are on this picture most of 1064 00:55:06,530 --> 00:55:03,480 this work was funded by the Moore 1065 00:55:09,130 --> 00:55:06,540 Foundation some of the last most recent 1066 00:55:11,900 --> 00:55:09,140 work has been funded by NASA on the 1067 00:55:15,440 --> 00:55:11,910 photo geochemistry but especially want 1068 00:55:18,770 --> 00:55:15,450 to thank Vic and and and Ben Yellin and 1069 00:55:22,010 --> 00:55:18,780 and John Kim and Jana Bromberg and and 1070 00:55:23,870 --> 00:55:22,020 Dave case who have helped helped us 1071 00:55:27,200 --> 00:55:23,880 understand a little bit about you know 1072 00:55:29,360 --> 00:55:27,210 we're still learning obviously about how 1073 00:55:31,250 --> 00:55:29,370 these protein nanomachines evolved and 1074 00:55:36,220 --> 00:55:31,260 how they created a metabolic network on 1075 00:55:38,450 --> 00:55:36,230 the planet and in so doing potentially 1076 00:55:40,550 --> 00:55:38,460 how we went from the sacrificial 1077 00:55:42,230 --> 00:55:40,560 chemistry of the photo oxidation of 1078 00:55:45,310 --> 00:55:42,240 Sidda right or manganese carbonate to 1079 00:55:48,290 --> 00:55:45,320 the catalytic chemistry of 1080 00:55:51,170 --> 00:55:48,300 photosynthesis that to me is probably 1081 00:55:56,150 --> 00:55:51,180 one of the biggest challenges that I can 1082 00:55:57,740 --> 00:55:56,160 I can handle and that's what I think 1083 00:56:00,800 --> 00:55:57,750 about so I thank you all very very much 1084 00:56:08,750 --> 00:56:00,810 for the opportunity to to at least have 1085 00:56:13,190 --> 00:56:08,760 this conversation with him thank you the 1086 00:56:32,240 --> 00:56:13,200 Nam time for question anybody who had a 1087 00:56:35,600 --> 00:56:32,250 comment questions yeah that was very 1088 00:56:39,200 --> 00:56:35,610 interesting I'm a planetary scientist so 1089 00:56:43,310 --> 00:56:39,210 I wanted to comment on something you 1090 00:56:47,030 --> 00:56:43,320 said earlier about water delivery it's a 1091 00:56:49,430 --> 00:56:47,040 very big problem that still I think has 1092 00:56:52,850 --> 00:56:49,440 not been solved although much progress 1093 00:56:57,320 --> 00:56:52,860 has been made seeded as you correctly 1094 00:56:59,960 --> 00:56:57,330 pointed out we know that the water was 1095 00:57:01,730 --> 00:56:59,970 not mostly cometary in origin that is 1096 00:57:03,770 --> 00:57:01,740 from hydrogen isotopes that is from 1097 00:57:06,080 --> 00:57:03,780 xenon isotopes that is from lots of 1098 00:57:07,880 --> 00:57:06,090 other things so it had to be meteoritic 1099 00:57:09,680 --> 00:57:07,890 but even there we're running into 1100 00:57:13,370 --> 00:57:09,690 certain problems because of what kind of 1101 00:57:16,070 --> 00:57:13,380 meteorite you do and so forth recent 1102 00:57:19,870 --> 00:57:16,080 progress however seems to point towards 1103 00:57:22,760 --> 00:57:19,880 the water being delivered very early 1104 00:57:25,130 --> 00:57:22,770 previous theories for example by Francie 1105 00:57:26,900 --> 00:57:25,140 Alvarez and some others they said that 1106 00:57:29,420 --> 00:57:26,910 the water must have been delivered late 1107 00:57:31,190 --> 00:57:29,430 so after the moon formation in terms of 1108 00:57:32,720 --> 00:57:31,200 the late veneer late accretion and so 1109 00:57:35,270 --> 00:57:32,730 forth because that's how you can keep it 1110 00:57:38,030 --> 00:57:35,280 at the service turns out that that 1111 00:57:40,070 --> 00:57:38,040 picture is probably no longer true and 1112 00:57:42,290 --> 00:57:40,080 that instead the water was delivered 1113 00:57:45,530 --> 00:57:42,300 early in the first couple of million 1114 00:57:48,590 --> 00:57:45,540 years five to may at most ten million 1115 00:57:52,820 --> 00:57:48,600 years and the remaining accretion was 1116 00:57:56,060 --> 00:57:52,830 then rather dry and reduced and that is 1117 00:57:58,730 --> 00:57:56,070 a new result which I think some people 1118 00:58:00,740 --> 00:57:58,740 in the origins of life community and the 1119 00:58:03,470 --> 00:58:00,750 Haiti and earth and Archaean earth may 1120 00:58:05,630 --> 00:58:03,480 want to think about because it might be 1121 00:58:07,880 --> 00:58:05,640 able to provide you with the reduced 1122 00:58:09,970 --> 00:58:07,890 environment rather than an oxidizing 1123 00:58:14,060 --> 00:58:09,980 environment early on on the earth 1124 00:58:16,430 --> 00:58:14,070 okay so who's published this where I 1125 00:58:18,380 --> 00:58:16,440 have started to publish this there's one 1126 00:58:20,900 --> 00:58:18,390 or two other collaborators this is 1127 00:58:22,640 --> 00:58:20,910 slowly coming out okay but it's 1128 00:58:24,380 --> 00:58:22,650 relatively new I just wanted to point 1129 00:58:26,060 --> 00:58:24,390 that out and so some people do we have 1130 00:58:29,750 --> 00:58:26,070 zircons or something that can help us 1131 00:58:36,830 --> 00:58:29,760 inform this or its models it's both okay 1132 00:58:41,990 --> 00:58:36,840 it's a combination of both okay Justin 1133 00:58:44,240 --> 00:58:42,000 uh-oh no no to him over here okay on a 1134 00:58:45,770 --> 00:58:44,250 big perspective note so you you I 1135 00:58:47,420 --> 00:58:45,780 completely agree that you carrots are 1136 00:58:49,280 --> 00:58:47,430 absolutely boring in terms of metabolism 1137 00:58:51,440 --> 00:58:49,290 and biochemistry but they are not in 1138 00:58:53,420 --> 00:58:51,450 terms of complexity of course okay and 1139 00:58:55,880 --> 00:58:53,430 and so I wanted to know your perspective 1140 00:58:59,300 --> 00:58:55,890 just in general the it being a keynote 1141 00:59:01,850 --> 00:58:59,310 speaker and everything on how you would 1142 00:59:03,620 --> 00:59:01,860 see complexity arising because it only 1143 00:59:06,980 --> 00:59:03,630 did one so there's only one type of 1144 00:59:08,810 --> 00:59:06,990 complex thing on earth which then led on 1145 00:59:11,300 --> 00:59:08,820 to plant and animals and fungi and so on 1146 00:59:12,920 --> 00:59:11,310 do you see that happening more than once 1147 00:59:14,510 --> 00:59:12,930 on earth and maybe elsewhere in the 1148 00:59:15,810 --> 00:59:14,520 universe if there's life assume let's 1149 00:59:17,310 --> 00:59:15,820 assume there is life wouldn't 1150 00:59:20,010 --> 00:59:17,320 would there be complex life somewhere 1151 00:59:21,840 --> 00:59:20,020 else end so let's ask the quest the 1152 00:59:24,870 --> 00:59:21,850 question which is seldom asked actually 1153 00:59:26,970 --> 00:59:24,880 why are there animals why multicellular 1154 00:59:28,320 --> 00:59:26,980 what's so great about multicellularity 1155 00:59:30,210 --> 00:59:28,330 everything I think about in 1156 00:59:32,160 --> 00:59:30,220 multicellularity you have a lower 1157 00:59:35,820 --> 00:59:32,170 reproductive rate you have a higher 1158 00:59:37,800 --> 00:59:35,830 energy intensity it's it's there's no 1159 00:59:39,720 --> 00:59:37,810 great advantage until you start to think 1160 00:59:41,610 --> 00:59:39,730 about it in terms of a physics problem 1161 00:59:46,290 --> 00:59:41,620 so here's the way I think about it in a 1162 00:59:48,990 --> 00:59:46,300 physics problem if I take a 1163 00:59:52,440 --> 00:59:49,000 single-celled organism that is trying to 1164 00:59:57,960 --> 00:59:52,450 for example use a flagella to get some 1165 01:00:00,810 --> 00:59:57,970 bacteria into its orifice its mouth it's 1166 01:00:03,410 --> 01:00:00,820 working at a very very very low Reynolds 1167 01:00:07,770 --> 01:00:03,420 number so the viscosity that this guy is 1168 01:00:09,990 --> 01:00:07,780 experiencing is very very hot so these 1169 01:00:11,910 --> 01:00:10,000 are be for example a single-cell Kawana 1170 01:00:13,920 --> 01:00:11,920 flageolet this is the one of the 1171 01:00:16,860 --> 01:00:13,930 earliest organisms that we can think of 1172 01:00:20,790 --> 01:00:16,870 that forms or we know that today forms 1173 01:00:25,560 --> 01:00:20,800 colonies and why am I thinking about 1174 01:00:28,950 --> 01:00:25,570 this for many years we know that the 1175 01:00:31,050 --> 01:00:28,960 first fossils of organisms were like 1176 01:00:33,570 --> 01:00:31,060 sponges in the Cambrian now there were 1177 01:00:35,220 --> 01:00:33,580 sponges in the Ediacaran and there are 1178 01:00:36,840 --> 01:00:35,230 other organisms in the Ediacaran which 1179 01:00:39,240 --> 01:00:36,850 nobody knows what the hell they really 1180 01:00:39,750 --> 01:00:39,250 did but let's think about sponges for a 1181 01:00:42,720 --> 01:00:39,760 minute 1182 01:00:45,900 --> 01:00:42,730 so sponges were dissected in the by the 1183 01:00:49,200 --> 01:00:45,910 by many people but a French guy in the 1184 01:00:52,170 --> 01:00:49,210 1880s or so noticed that the linings of 1185 01:00:54,240 --> 01:00:52,180 the inside of a sponge had flagella that 1186 01:00:59,640 --> 01:00:54,250 looked like Oh Anna flageolets and he 1187 01:01:00,810 --> 01:00:59,650 called those cells : Oh sites now why am 1188 01:01:02,520 --> 01:01:00,820 I saying that because you can take a 1189 01:01:05,880 --> 01:01:02,530 sponge and put it through a sieve and 1190 01:01:08,100 --> 01:01:05,890 the cells will self assemble which is 1191 01:01:10,140 --> 01:01:08,110 amazing and they will form these co ana 1192 01:01:12,390 --> 01:01:10,150 sites will form a colony again right up 1193 01:01:14,580 --> 01:01:12,400 through a tube now let's think about 1194 01:01:17,910 --> 01:01:14,590 this for a minute the kiwanis sites are 1195 01:01:20,730 --> 01:01:17,920 all beating their flagella in the same 1196 01:01:23,040 --> 01:01:20,740 direction so instead of having a single 1197 01:01:26,580 --> 01:01:23,050 cell now forage a few millimeters at a 1198 01:01:29,760 --> 01:01:26,590 time for bacteria now you can filter 1199 01:01:32,130 --> 01:01:29,770 from a stationary organism hundreds of 1200 01:01:36,750 --> 01:01:32,140 of seawater in a day so the foraging 1201 01:01:39,180 --> 01:01:36,760 area is huge without having to move so 1202 01:01:42,060 --> 01:01:39,190 it's a fluid dynamics problem to me that 1203 01:01:43,970 --> 01:01:42,070 originated complexity it's an 1204 01:01:47,160 --> 01:01:43,980 interesting one I'm not sure I'm right 1205 01:01:49,680 --> 01:01:47,170 but it's at least something to think 1206 01:01:52,680 --> 01:01:49,690 about when you start to get to organisms 1207 01:01:55,380 --> 01:01:52,690 that became marine organisms that are 1208 01:01:58,950 --> 01:01:55,390 living in this world of a high viscous 1209 01:02:01,650 --> 01:01:58,960 property at very small size becoming 1210 01:02:03,870 --> 01:02:01,660 much less inhibited by the reynolds 1211 01:02:06,180 --> 01:02:03,880 number issue when they become larger and 1212 01:02:10,740 --> 01:02:06,190 larger and then the selection pressure 1213 01:02:13,320 --> 01:02:10,750 to go from a spherical blob to a by 1214 01:02:17,490 --> 01:02:13,330 latarian which is able to cut through 1215 01:02:20,790 --> 01:02:17,500 water much more efficiently leads to 1216 01:02:23,460 --> 01:02:20,800 body forms so I've had this conversation 1217 01:02:26,940 --> 01:02:23,470 with several paleontologists Dugger when 1218 01:02:31,050 --> 01:02:26,950 others but this issue of why animals is 1219 01:02:34,290 --> 01:02:31,060 really kind of sidestepped it's not just 1220 01:02:37,080 --> 01:02:34,300 complexity but what is the advantage of 1221 01:02:39,770 --> 01:02:37,090 multicellularity okay what are the 1222 01:02:43,440 --> 01:02:39,780 advantages of multicellularity so I 1223 01:02:46,560 --> 01:02:43,450 completely complexity is a subjective 1224 01:02:49,860 --> 01:02:46,570 term multicellularity is an objective 1225 01:02:52,830 --> 01:02:49,870 term and I would rather I think an 1226 01:02:55,800 --> 01:02:52,840 e.coli is complex okay 1227 01:02:57,390 --> 01:02:55,810 so I just think that we should be a 1228 01:02:59,820 --> 01:02:57,400 little careful about what the selection 1229 01:03:04,730 --> 01:02:59,830 pressures were to allow this now if you 1230 01:03:07,260 --> 01:03:04,740 think about this this foraging issue 1231 01:03:10,320 --> 01:03:07,270 becomes really interesting if you can 1232 01:03:12,960 --> 01:03:10,330 out-compete other organisms right then 1233 01:03:16,650 --> 01:03:12,970 you can become more efficient even in 1234 01:03:20,310 --> 01:03:16,660 multicellularity if you grow slowly but 1235 01:03:22,590 --> 01:03:20,320 you still capture more food so it is to 1236 01:03:24,180 --> 01:03:22,600 me it's some place to explore I I don't 1237 01:03:30,030 --> 01:03:24,190 have the answers but I just think about 1238 01:03:32,670 --> 01:03:30,040 a lot all right thanks for yeah the 1239 01:03:34,830 --> 01:03:32,680 incredible incredible talk I see my 1240 01:03:37,470 --> 01:03:34,840 question is is sort of quite closely 1241 01:03:41,240 --> 01:03:37,480 related to the previous one so you've 1242 01:03:43,000 --> 01:03:41,250 alluded to the fact that the bulk of the 1243 01:03:46,180 --> 01:03:43,010 electron transport 1244 01:03:49,690 --> 01:03:46,190 the bulk of metabolic biochemical 1245 01:03:51,640 --> 01:03:49,700 activity on earth can be can be narrowed 1246 01:03:55,390 --> 01:03:51,650 down to this very small number of genes 1247 01:03:59,770 --> 01:03:55,400 very small number of nano scale machines 1248 01:04:01,900 --> 01:03:59,780 so if that's true why is it that that 1249 01:04:04,660 --> 01:04:01,910 implies that life is carrying around a 1250 01:04:06,580 --> 01:04:04,670 lot of redundant excess baggage and the 1251 01:04:08,380 --> 01:04:06,590 question is why does it not dump my 1252 01:04:14,140 --> 01:04:08,390 question is why does it not ditch all 1253 01:04:15,820 --> 01:04:14,150 that excess baggage I I was talking here 1254 01:04:17,950 --> 01:04:15,830 about the electron transfer part of it 1255 01:04:20,410 --> 01:04:17,960 so you have other genes that are 1256 01:04:22,870 --> 01:04:20,420 responsible for replication other genes 1257 01:04:24,610 --> 01:04:22,880 are responsible for making the membranes 1258 01:04:27,250 --> 01:04:24,620 and so on so I mean when you get down to 1259 01:04:28,780 --> 01:04:27,260 it as we know we need about thousand 1260 01:04:31,540 --> 01:04:28,790 genes or something to make a book right 1261 01:04:33,190 --> 01:04:31,550 I don't know what the minimal number is 1262 01:04:36,010 --> 01:04:33,200 I mean craig Venter probably can make a 1263 01:04:41,200 --> 01:04:36,020 bug with 400 genes or 500 genes for one 1264 01:04:42,940 --> 01:04:41,210 bug but if you start to make say 40 1265 01:04:45,070 --> 01:04:42,950 different bugs that carry out all the 1266 01:04:50,470 --> 01:04:45,080 basic metabolic processes on the planet 1267 01:04:55,840 --> 01:04:50,480 a few tens of thousands of genes yeah so 1268 01:04:58,650 --> 01:04:55,850 I guess well sort of an alternative for 1269 01:05:01,840 --> 01:04:58,660 my question is why 1270 01:05:03,340 --> 01:05:01,850 if metabolism is so simple is relatively 1271 01:05:05,530 --> 01:05:03,350 simple on the bulk level why did the 1272 01:05:09,730 --> 01:05:05,540 earth not just choose to to just do 1273 01:05:12,700 --> 01:05:09,740 these that do that bioenergetics in bulk 1274 01:05:14,710 --> 01:05:12,710 instead and why did it choose to it 1275 01:05:16,210 --> 01:05:14,720 probably was much simpler a long time 1276 01:05:18,040 --> 01:05:16,220 ago you know eukaryotes screwed this 1277 01:05:20,590 --> 01:05:18,050 thing up we have a lot of so you only 1278 01:05:25,710 --> 01:05:20,600 have 20,000 22,000 genes protein coding 1279 01:05:28,390 --> 01:05:25,720 genes right I take a dinoflagellate 1280 01:05:30,790 --> 01:05:28,400 let's take the dinoflagellates have as 1281 01:05:32,830 --> 01:05:30,800 far as I know the largest genomes of a 1282 01:05:35,250 --> 01:05:32,840 single-celled organism on the planet the 1283 01:05:37,450 --> 01:05:35,260 smallest dinoflagellate genome is in 1284 01:05:39,510 --> 01:05:37,460 symbiotically at accom which is the 1285 01:05:45,430 --> 01:05:39,520 zooxanthellae that lives inside a coral 1286 01:05:49,750 --> 01:05:45,440 that genome is about 1.9 giga bases it 1287 01:05:51,610 --> 01:05:49,760 also has 20,000 protein coding genes if 1288 01:05:53,860 --> 01:05:51,620 I take another dinoflagellate that's 1289 01:05:56,720 --> 01:05:53,870 free living I can get up to 12 Giga 1290 01:05:59,520 --> 01:05:56,730 bases it has 20,000 1291 01:06:03,170 --> 01:05:59,530 genes that are protein-coding so most of 1292 01:06:09,660 --> 01:06:03,180 these genes are simply dispersed in 1293 01:06:12,150 --> 01:06:09,670 within introns and transposons and it's 1294 01:06:14,520 --> 01:06:12,160 it's that to me is the selfish genome 1295 01:06:18,930 --> 01:06:14,530 problem right so this is this goes back 1296 01:06:21,990 --> 01:06:18,940 to Carmon Sapienza and and and for 1297 01:06:25,460 --> 01:06:22,000 Doolittle I mean it it is a problem of 1298 01:06:27,900 --> 01:06:25,470 why these pieces of DNA are not shocked 1299 01:06:30,210 --> 01:06:27,910 and you don't see this in you carry I 1300 01:06:31,920 --> 01:06:30,220 prokaryotes so much but it certainly is 1301 01:06:33,540 --> 01:06:31,930 a very interesting problem of you know 1302 01:06:36,440 --> 01:06:33,550 the minimalist why aren't we all 1303 01:06:40,349 --> 01:06:36,450 minimalist right I don't know the answer 1304 01:06:42,780 --> 01:06:40,359 that's two questions first Paul I've got 1305 01:06:45,420 --> 01:06:42,790 a kind of two related questions the 1306 01:06:48,120 --> 01:06:45,430 first question is is in your sitter ID 1307 01:06:51,750 --> 01:06:48,130 experiments is the sitter ID acting as a 1308 01:06:55,849 --> 01:06:51,760 catalyst and the split water and and in 1309 01:06:58,410 --> 01:06:55,859 doing so is being oxidized by the the 1310 01:06:59,790 --> 01:06:58,420 oxygen radical that's being produced so 1311 01:07:02,520 --> 01:06:59,800 that's the first question but then the 1312 01:07:05,849 --> 01:07:02,530 second follow-up regardless of that it's 1313 01:07:07,590 --> 01:07:05,859 it's a really interesting process that 1314 01:07:09,390 --> 01:07:07,600 you observe because and I think it's 1315 01:07:11,160 --> 01:07:09,400 incredibly relevant to the origin of 1316 01:07:13,200 --> 01:07:11,170 life or at least early life because of 1317 01:07:16,500 --> 01:07:13,210 some of the recent results people are 1318 01:07:18,630 --> 01:07:16,510 showing for methanogens heceta genes and 1319 01:07:22,050 --> 01:07:18,640 sulfur reducers whatever in that they 1320 01:07:23,940 --> 01:07:22,060 can reduce iron with hydrogen many of 1321 01:07:25,530 --> 01:07:23,950 them can they can set you know so but 1322 01:07:27,420 --> 01:07:25,540 with antigens don't necessarily need to 1323 01:07:29,670 --> 01:07:27,430 reduce co2 for their energy metabolism 1324 01:07:32,130 --> 01:07:29,680 as it appears you're absolutely right 1325 01:07:33,510 --> 01:07:32,140 Eric so in in the real world that would 1326 01:07:36,180 --> 01:07:33,520 have been a cycle so you would have 1327 01:07:39,000 --> 01:07:36,190 oxidized the iron the city right you 1328 01:07:42,720 --> 01:07:39,010 would have reduced it by either a bug or 1329 01:07:44,760 --> 01:07:42,730 or just an environmental reducing agent 1330 01:07:46,080 --> 01:07:44,770 and you could have get this going and 1331 01:07:49,470 --> 01:07:46,090 going and going and going again 1332 01:07:51,120 --> 01:07:49,480 continuously and it has occurred to us 1333 01:07:55,109 --> 01:07:51,130 that this is probably what happened 1334 01:07:56,580 --> 01:07:55,119 early on now just a brain fart just to 1335 01:07:58,940 --> 01:07:56,590 think about that when I we published 1336 01:08:01,230 --> 01:07:58,950 this paper I send it to Korat singer I 1337 01:08:03,140 --> 01:08:01,240 said that's why there's no carbonates 1338 01:08:05,880 --> 01:08:03,150 left on Mars from the surface of Mars 1339 01:08:09,960 --> 01:08:05,890 because you probably had a thin wet 1340 01:08:11,700 --> 01:08:09,970 veneer at some point you had UV Sun like 1341 01:08:14,400 --> 01:08:11,710 bombarding the surface that regolith 1342 01:08:21,749 --> 01:08:14,410 became oxidized and what happens to the 1343 01:08:23,820 --> 01:08:21,759 carbon becomes co2 and so it's a very 1344 01:08:26,370 --> 01:08:23,830 interesting very interesting problem 1345 01:08:31,740 --> 01:08:26,380 planet airily I don't know if that's the 1346 01:08:32,910 --> 01:08:31,750 real case on Mars but it's certainly one 1347 01:08:34,620 --> 01:08:32,920 of these things that could have happened 1348 01:08:36,240 --> 01:08:34,630 it never happened on the moon by the way 1349 01:08:41,370 --> 01:08:36,250 it didn't happen on the moon you need 1350 01:08:43,229 --> 01:08:41,380 liquid water so at least we seem to need 1351 01:08:45,720 --> 01:08:43,239 with liquid water but we don't spit we 1352 01:08:47,010 --> 01:08:45,730 don't split water I wish if we were 1353 01:08:49,890 --> 01:08:47,020 splitting water I wouldn't be here 1354 01:08:51,900 --> 01:08:49,900 talking to you I'd be cutting it writing 1355 01:08:54,209 --> 01:08:51,910 the ends of a cheque for a few million 1356 01:08:59,400 --> 01:08:54,219 dollars of a patent and and I would be 1357 01:09:03,030 --> 01:08:59,410 living in Hawaii or something I wish you 1358 01:09:04,709 --> 01:09:03,040 know Nate Lewis and chuck dis music via 1359 01:09:06,209 --> 01:09:04,719 lot of people on this planet are trying 1360 01:09:09,269 --> 01:09:06,219 to split water with earth-abundant 1361 01:09:13,890 --> 01:09:09,279 transition metals as catalysts so Dan de 1362 01:09:16,289 --> 01:09:13,900 cera has been using cobalt in at Rutgers 1363 01:09:17,370 --> 01:09:16,299 chuck de smokes uses iron there are 1364 01:09:21,900 --> 01:09:17,380 others people that are trying to use 1365 01:09:25,289 --> 01:09:21,910 manganese we're just we're just taking 1366 01:09:27,479 --> 01:09:25,299 protons and sticking electrons onto the 1367 01:09:31,170 --> 01:09:27,489 protons to make hydrogen in that case 1368 01:09:33,090 --> 01:09:31,180 what was the second question so in the 1369 01:09:36,120 --> 01:09:33,100 process that you're oxidizing the iron 1370 01:09:36,959 --> 01:09:36,130 in the city right okay right well it's 1371 01:09:39,510 --> 01:09:36,969 more of a comment 1372 01:09:41,519 --> 01:09:39,520 it's just has incredible relevance to 1373 01:09:43,829 --> 01:09:41,529 what was possible on early Earth when we 1374 01:09:45,930 --> 01:09:43,839 think that life was Occident limited may 1375 01:09:48,690 --> 01:09:45,940 be limited to co2 it need not be if you 1376 01:09:50,459 --> 01:09:48,700 have UV that's it right yeah yeah right 1377 01:09:52,740 --> 01:09:50,469 you can generate the oxidant in that 1378 01:09:55,080 --> 01:09:52,750 form it's of course that's right that's 1379 01:09:56,910 --> 01:09:55,090 exactly how it works so I mean I know 1380 01:09:59,700 --> 01:09:56,920 Mike has thought about I mean 1381 01:10:03,170 --> 01:09:59,710 Karen Smith popularize this I guess and 1382 01:10:07,800 --> 01:10:03,180 when he was in Glasgow what 30 years ago 1383 01:10:11,130 --> 01:10:07,810 right so Graham Karen Smith started to 1384 01:10:13,740 --> 01:10:11,140 experiment on on minerals and photo 1385 01:10:17,790 --> 01:10:13,750 oxidation of minerals it's one of these 1386 01:10:19,620 --> 01:10:17,800 things that it's sort of a thin out here 1387 01:10:22,550 --> 01:10:19,630 in geochemistry this isn't 1388 01:10:23,729 --> 01:10:22,560 biogeochemistry is pure geochemistry 1389 01:10:26,279 --> 01:10:23,739 we're 1390 01:10:28,830 --> 01:10:26,289 very very very few people work in this 1391 01:10:31,109 --> 01:10:28,840 area very few and usually there's one 1392 01:10:33,750 --> 01:10:31,119 person that does this for 10 or 15 years 1393 01:10:36,419 --> 01:10:33,760 Martin shounan was the last at Stony 1394 01:10:37,859 --> 01:10:36,429 Brook and then you know he kind of 1395 01:10:41,270 --> 01:10:37,869 retired from science he's now a 1396 01:10:44,040 --> 01:10:41,280 co-director at Brookhaven National Lab 1397 01:10:46,259 --> 01:10:44,050 okay that was interesting and they 1398 01:10:48,000 --> 01:10:46,269 forget about it and it's rediscovered 10 1399 01:10:49,919 --> 01:10:48,010 years later and that's the way it goes 1400 01:10:53,220 --> 01:10:49,929 so we haven't really had a concerted 1401 01:10:55,739 --> 01:10:53,230 effort in understanding how photons can 1402 01:10:57,540 --> 01:10:55,749 transform minerals and ultimately move 1403 01:11:02,189 --> 01:10:57,550 on to become catalysts and I think it's 1404 01:11:04,229 --> 01:11:02,199 time so I tried that but you know it's 1405 01:11:08,100 --> 01:11:04,239 it's one of these things where we'll 1406 01:11:10,410 --> 01:11:08,110 have to do it without funding because it 1407 01:11:13,830 --> 01:11:10,420 was last time out we tried this with an 1408 01:11:17,970 --> 01:11:13,840 nai proposal there it came back it was 1409 01:11:20,220 --> 01:11:17,980 too risky okay I don't know why but 1410 01:11:22,229 --> 01:11:20,230 that's what that was the proposal we got 1411 01:11:24,410 --> 01:11:22,239 we use the rejection to get the money 1412 01:11:26,520 --> 01:11:24,420 from the Gordon and Betty Moore energies 1413 01:11:27,989 --> 01:11:26,530 first time I've used a rejection letter 1414 01:11:31,379 --> 01:11:27,999 we used a rejection letter to get 1415 01:11:33,810 --> 01:11:31,389 something funded but it is an 1416 01:11:38,870 --> 01:11:33,820 interesting problem because if you think 1417 01:11:41,310 --> 01:11:38,880 about it we know a lot a lot in terms of 1418 01:11:45,660 --> 01:11:41,320 calculating anti-bonding orbital's we 1419 01:11:48,299 --> 01:11:45,670 know a lot about basics of quantum 1420 01:11:51,180 --> 01:11:48,309 mechanics we should be able to screen a 1421 01:11:54,810 --> 01:11:51,190 whole series of earth abundant minerals 1422 01:11:57,089 --> 01:11:54,820 than the Archaean period and say how did 1423 01:12:00,359 --> 01:11:57,099 these come to be appropriated to make 1424 01:12:03,060 --> 01:12:00,369 electrons moved catalytically right so 1425 01:12:05,100 --> 01:12:03,070 what could I stick a 12 amino acid 1426 01:12:07,739 --> 01:12:05,110 peptide onto a piece of City right and 1427 01:12:12,270 --> 01:12:07,749 make a catalyst I don't know if I could 1428 01:12:13,500 --> 01:12:12,280 you know that would be very cool sorry I 1429 01:12:15,149 --> 01:12:13,510 was completely with you until the 1430 01:12:16,770 --> 01:12:15,159 questions and that's what made me ask a 1431 01:12:19,649 --> 01:12:16,780 question okay it's sort of your 1432 01:12:21,720 --> 01:12:19,659 dismissal of the why we have animals and 1433 01:12:23,850 --> 01:12:21,730 I love your perspective of the Reynolds 1434 01:12:25,290 --> 01:12:23,860 numbers but they're all the sort of 1435 01:12:26,879 --> 01:12:25,300 traditional things that you can have 1436 01:12:28,950 --> 01:12:26,889 specialization of cells you can avoid 1437 01:12:29,970 --> 01:12:28,960 predation you can you know you can do 1438 01:12:32,790 --> 01:12:29,980 all sorts of things when you're 1439 01:12:35,370 --> 01:12:32,800 multicellular and so it's curious why 1440 01:12:36,750 --> 01:12:35,380 you you sort of ignored that and the 1441 01:12:37,160 --> 01:12:36,760 other thing would be why do you become 1442 01:12:38,540 --> 01:12:37,170 by 1443 01:12:39,830 --> 01:12:38,550 really symmetrical so that you don't 1444 01:12:41,900 --> 01:12:39,840 have your anus in your mouth in the same 1445 01:12:44,360 --> 01:12:41,910 orifice well 1446 01:12:46,880 --> 01:12:44,370 the bilateral symmetrical issue for me 1447 01:12:49,130 --> 01:12:46,890 is a hydrodynamic issue right and that's 1448 01:12:50,930 --> 01:12:49,140 why it's curious well I think about it 1449 01:12:52,790 --> 01:12:50,940 you know I'm trained in biophysics I 1450 01:12:54,350 --> 01:12:52,800 think about it in physics right but from 1451 01:12:56,209 --> 01:12:54,360 metabolic point of view it makes a heck 1452 01:12:59,000 --> 01:12:56,219 of a lot more sense - it won't end at 1453 01:13:00,320 --> 01:12:59,010 one end in a protozoan deuterostome 1454 01:13:01,970 --> 01:13:00,330 issue I mean I'm not going to go down 1455 01:13:06,350 --> 01:13:01,980 that road that's a developmental problem 1456 01:13:09,950 --> 01:13:06,360 but I think that the issue here of the 1457 01:13:13,189 --> 01:13:09,960 fundamental question is scaling 1458 01:13:15,669 --> 01:13:13,199 metabolism - sharing resources between 1459 01:13:17,870 --> 01:13:15,679 cells so that you have shared 1460 01:13:22,030 --> 01:13:17,880 responsibilities to make an organism 1461 01:13:24,320 --> 01:13:22,040 right so that ultimately is a 1462 01:13:27,860 --> 01:13:24,330 fundamental problem in developmental 1463 01:13:31,400 --> 01:13:27,870 biology but it is also not exactly clear 1464 01:13:34,939 --> 01:13:31,410 to me why you had to do this there's no 1465 01:13:36,830 --> 01:13:34,949 we were perfectly fine 42.8 you know 1466 01:13:38,360 --> 01:13:36,840 it's only what we have animals the 1467 01:13:41,240 --> 01:13:38,370 oldest animal that we have on the planet 1468 01:13:46,280 --> 01:13:41,250 I think in the fossil record is 635 1469 01:13:47,630 --> 01:13:46,290 million years old so for you know 85 90 1470 01:13:50,030 --> 01:13:47,640 percent of Earth's history I don't know 1471 01:13:52,760 --> 01:13:50,040 the number I just around 80 percent of 1472 01:13:54,110 --> 01:13:52,770 Earth's history or more microbes had the 1473 01:13:56,060 --> 01:13:54,120 world unto themselves and we're 1474 01:13:57,590 --> 01:13:56,070 perfectly fine and they still are there 1475 01:13:59,479 --> 01:13:57,600 there's still the dominant creatures 1476 01:14:02,120 --> 01:13:59,489 they're still making the planet go 1477 01:14:03,860 --> 01:14:02,130 around I mean animals and plants are 1478 01:14:06,620 --> 01:14:03,870 kind of like you know they're kind of 1479 01:14:08,240 --> 01:14:06,630 decorations as a fellow put pretty soon 1480 01:14:09,830 --> 01:14:08,250 you'd do you know that virtually every 1481 01:14:12,169 --> 01:14:09,840 protists and taxon has multi cellular 1482 01:14:19,080 --> 01:14:12,179 yes I mean you know it's done over and 1483 01:14:19,810 --> 01:14:19,090 over anyway all right okay again 1484 01:14:42,540 --> 01:14:19,820 [Applause]